Collection Timeline

1905 to 2012

1905
In this paper we present evidence supporting the premise that forest nutrition, nutrient cycling and nutrient management are critical factors for the health of Inland Western forests and for management of the ecosystems. The current state of knowledge suggests that inadequate tree nutrition, particularly potassium shortage, influences tree chemistry such that inadequate plant defensive compounds are produced. Pathogens and insects are unusually successful in attacking such trees. Forest managers have substantial influence on the forest nutritional environment through nearly all types of silvicultural treatments.

1911
This publication provides great insight into northwestern forestry issues of the time. Many reports focus primarily on the need for fire control and suppression.

1913
A not so dry early report on the Preist River Experimental Station and its beginnings. Content includes photographs of the station and surrounding experimental grounds, reports on research projects taking place at the station, and financial analyses of various projects at the station.

1920
The Cradle of Forestry Where Tree Power Started Part I. A short history on the beginnings of scientific forestry. Published in American Forests: The Magazine of Forests, Soil, Water, Wildlife, and Outdoor Recreation
A short history on the beginnings of scientific forestry.
A short history on the beginnings of scientific forestry.

1924
Forest fires know no property lines. Probably of this alone was born the idea of cooperative forest protection which many authorities consider one of the greatest and most far reaching steps ever taken in forestry and related lines of endeavor.
An overview of the general forestry situation of the US at the time, highlighting data that suggests overharvesting is occurring.
The introductory issue of The Forestry Bulletin issued by the School of Forestry describing the need for better dissemination of forestry knowledge and its intention to aid in solving this problem.
In reaction to the previous article's suggestion of future timber shortages this issue looks to other countries as alternative sources of timber for exploitation.
The Clarke-McNary Forestry Act looks toward the establishment of an enlarged forest policy for the U.S. The act focuses on the need for private forestry in the U.S. suggesting financial assistance in fire protection recognizing that the growing of timber by private owners entails risks which the public should share.
In this issue the forest area, timber stand, and lumber cut by ownership are briefly compared, and the future dependence of the forest wealth upon government and state ownership is highlighted.
Describes the shifting increase in timber production to the northwestern US giving annual lumber cut data from 1915-1922.
A report on Idaho's 1924 fire season. Includes statistics concerning acreage burned, damage and timber lost.
A brief overview of White Pine Blister Rust, including what and where it is and its threat to Idaho.

1925
This issue focuses on the economic value of Idaho forests both now and in the future with aims to convince readers of the need for forest policy to prevent timber losses.
An informative issue describing the importance of forest conservation in regards to water supplies.
An overview of funding appropriation for roads in and outside of Idaho National Forests.
This bulletin describes how Idaho has historically been a leader in Forest Protection.
A description of Idaho's new forestry law predicated on the belief that if forest fires are controlled, forest production problems are largely solved. This law created the office of a state forester, and a state cooperative board of forestry.
This bulletin addresses the increasing popularity of outdoor activities and how forest management is related. Managers must take greater care to make sure that the public is aware of fire hazards, keep campsites clean, and roads maintained. The bulletin describes major outdoor recreational uses such as camping, fishing, hunting and the study of wildlife.
A brief history of the School of Forestry at the University of Idaho. Also in this bulletin is an overview of current forestry work being undertaken.
This bulletin works to convince the reader that US timber supplies are being consumed unsustainably. In order to curtail this unsustainable consumption there are three readily available solutions: increase forest growth, reduce fire losses, reduce waste of forest products. The remainder of the bulletin focuses on reducing forest product waste as it presents itself as the most immediate solution to the timber problem mentioned above.
An overview of the 1925 fire season in Idaho including information on the causes of various fires as well as suppression and damage costs.

1926
Provides guidelines for marking timber meant for harvesting.
A creatively written account of the overall impact of forest fire. The author describes the succession of a forest after fire and compares the growth of a mature forest to raising a child.
Hubert presents the findings of a few studies geared towards problems of immediate interest to the western pine industry. These problems dealt mainly with improvements in the use of wood products and include studies concerning durability, moisture content in relation to decay and stain, and new commercial uses for certain species.
An account of the 1926 fire season in Idaho, a particularly extreme season, with precipitation data as well as information on acreage burned on national forests and other lands including their respective costs.
A summation of the economic benefits brought to Idaho via 'her' forests, including authorized federal funding for roads in various states.
This article presents the slow creep of White Pine Blister Rust to Idaho suggesting that it most likely has already infected Idaho forests and is just yet to be found. Current efforts to mitigate the spread include the removal of currants and gooseberries which were thought to host the rust at one point in its life cycle. The article continues on describing possible impacts to the environment of Idaho forests were to be attacked.
A brief summation of the beginnings of a forest nursery at the University of Idaho. The article introduces C.H. Shattuck and his arboretum on campus as well as the idea of growing trees for reforestation gaining widespread popularity.

1927
Covers a brief outline of tree seedling nursery work and replanting including costs.
A report covering the actual Mullan Route and its disputed alternate routes.
An account of the 1927 fire season in Idaho which was particularly mild. The mild season was accompanied by higher than usual precipitation and late season snowfall. The report includes data on number of fires for the season and their believed causes.
This article begins by describing overall ownership of forest land and timber in Idaho and how much of it was cut in 1922. It then extrapolates the data predicting that the majority of Idaho will be without timber in the next 35 years without fire mitigation.
A report supporting the generally agreed upon idea that fuel woods compare favorably with coal in heating value.
A tabulated version of information regarding needle rusts present in the northwest.
Three men amongst a stand of huge trees.
Two loggers in a huge tree stand.
A hand drawn map of the Idaho Montana border.
A hand drawn map of the Northern Pacific Railroad.
A hand drawn map of the Northern Pacific Railroad.
A black and white photograph of the Climax Locomotive
A short history of the Climax Patent Geared Locomotive, owned by the USDA Forest Service.
A photo of the Climax Locomotive loaded with timber.
A report arguing that occasions may arise in which leaving decaying trees may be justifiable, especially in the Douglas fir region of the Pacific Northwest. The writer states that leaving such trees may be beneficial to the renewal and long term health of the forest.

1928
A summary of Blister Rust research being performed outside of Boville, Idaho. This piece also includes accounts of local inquiry into the project, the writer mostly poking fun at the questions asked by locals.
An outline of the need for ribes eradication in forest containing white pine.
A description of, and the data collected from, an experiment in Southern Idaho near Caldwell, where different species of trees were planted in alkali soil to see how well they would grow.
A review of research of or relating to ceratostomella and graphium, two wood staining fungi.

1929
A description of the history of Blister Rust in the Northwest, prevention methods used, and potential measures that can be taken; as well as areas that needed more study.

1930
A project set up to determine which forest and shade trees are best adapted for planting in alkali soils of southern Idaho. Results showing that conifers do poorly overall and Silver Poplar having best results.
A report describing an important pollution case between the US and Canada that ended with legal reforms establishing the polluter pays principle. This report also contains information pertaining to financial settlements made to farmers effected by pollution from the smelter.
A brief report concerning a root parasite found on white fir in New Mexico.
An article containing observations of what appears to be water conducting heartwood in two species of trees, Populus wislezeni and Morus alba tartarica.

1931
A description of contaminated areas of White Pine affected by Blister Rust in northern Idaho and experimental locol control. Also a brief list of other affected areas in the West.

1932
A brief description of Blister Rust in Idaho, the need for acceleration of control programs, and the progress made in those programs.

1951
A timber survey map of Payette National Forest. Map number T.18N.R2E.
A timber survey map of Payette National Forest. Map number T.19N.R2E.
A forest survey map of Boise National Forest.
Grosbeaks posed on the edge of a watering container.
A few ptarmigan beginning to change color at the edge of a snowfield.
An unidentified woodpecker scoping out an aspen tree.
Upclose profile shot of a swan.

1955
Earl Larrison using the reflectometer
Earl Larrison using the reflectometer
Earl Larrison using the reflectometer

1958
A forest survey map of Idaho.

1959
A close up photo of a kingfisher in the bushes.
Two geese standing on a log next to a lake.
Iain Baxter using surveying transit.
Iain Baxter signalling white sighting thru transit.
Professor Larrison holding line marking rod while Baxter sights it into correct position.

1960
A timber inventory map of the St. Joe National Forest. Map number T44N R2E BM.
A timber inventory map of the St. Joe National Forest. Map number T44N R3E BM.
A timber inventory map of the St. Joe National Forest. Map number T46N R3E BM.
A timber inventory map of the St. Joe National Forest. Map number T43N R3E BM.
Conopthorus monticolae larvae on a Douglas Fir cone.
Conopthorus monticolae larvae on a Douglas Fir cone.
Conopthorus monticolae eggs in a Douglas Fir cone.
An adult Conopthorus monticolae on a Douglas Fir cone.

1961
The information covered in this collection includes a general biology of bark beetles followed by more in depth coverage of the mountain pine beetle, Douglas Fir Beetle, Spruce Beetle, Western Pine Beetle, Red Turpentine Beetle, Fir Engraver, Pine Enraver Beetle, Six Spined Engraver Beetle, Ambrosia Beetles, and the White Pine Weevil (Spruce Weevil). Included in the detailed information of each insect are characteristics of that beetle as well as suggested silvicultural practices for mitigating their impacts.
A timber inventory map of Kaniksu National Forest. Map number T63N R2E BM.
A timber inventory map of Kaniksu National Forest. Map number T63N R1W BM.
Webbed frass accumulation on surface of western white pine cone (northern Idaho) infested by Eucosma rescissoriana.
Western white pine cones (northern Idaho) with 100% (left), and 50% (right) damage by Eucosma rescissoriana larvae. Non-infected cone is shown in center.
An adult Fir Coneworm.
Dioryctria abietivorella cocoon of sand.
Two adult Eucosma rescissoriana

1962
A map showing the areas infested with Douglas-fir Tussock Moth in northern Idaho in 1962.
A hunting and fishing map compliments of Potlatch Forests Inc. and Clearwater Timber Protective Association. Side 1.
A hunting and fishing map compliments of Potlatch Forests Inc. and Clearwater Timber Protective Association. Side 2.

1963
A report broken into seven parts concerning various aspects of pests and pest control in forest ecosystems.
An informational flyer covering briefly the history of Spruce Budworm infestation and control. Also pictured is a life cycle chart of the Spruce Budworm as well as a map of the spray testing area.
An in depth report describing the mountain pine beetle epidemic in the forests surrounding McCall, Idaho.

1964
A description of the spruce budworm epidemic and its threat to timber, wildlife habitat, watersheds and recreation. Article highlights Salmon, Idaho as a location for fighting the problem and local support of chemical spraying of the forests for control.
Study plan evaluating the immediate effects of a DDT spray program on aquatic organisms. Includes methods and hand drawn map of testing area.
Study plan evaluating the protective controls of a DDT spray project in order to verify adequacy of measures. Additionally, the plan outlines an evaluation of impacts of DDT application on fish and fish habitat within project area.
A report on the need for insect control in forest ecosystems. The report focuses on the need for new ways of eradicating pests without harming the surrounding environment. However, the prescribed control for insect infestations is a low dose of DDT in the Salmon National Forest.
This is an informational flyer covering the spruce budworm epidemic in the Salmon-Challis National Forests and how it will be treated.
An in depth report describing the spruce budworm epidemic and results of historic control efforts in the Salmon National Forest.
A study plan proposing the evaluation of the impacts and effects on terrestrial wildlife from aerial DDT and Cygon application.
An outline of the responsibilities and duties of the Monitor Coordinator for the 1964 Spruce Budworm Project.
An in depth outline of a study to be conducted within proposed spray areas infected with spruce budworm. Includes sheets for data collection throughout the project.

1965
Forest Service professionals working out plans to control the Tussock Moth infestation in northern, Idaho.
A booth set up describing the Tussock Moth invasion in Idaho.
A Forest Service professional examining Tussock Moth damage.
A Forest Service professional making a telephone call via portable telephone.
A helicopter lands to refill with pesticide for aerial application.
A helicopter spraying pesticide on forest trees.
Forest Service professional displays a Tussock Moth on fir needles.
Tussock moth pilot test examining non-DDT methods of control.
An introduction to the Tussock moth's life cycle as well as a report on the research concerning control methods and impact in Northern Idaho.
The tussock moth dilemma. This article describes the need for DDT application citing local economic impacts as the main drivers for immediate insect control.
An informational flyer geared towards informing dairymen of ways to prevent milk contamination via pesticides.
A preliminary summarization of information available covering the intensive monitoring program carried on in conjunction with the 1964 Spruce Budworm Control Project on the Salmon National Forest. The monitoring program was aimed at investigating effects on many elements of the forest environment.
Description of the plan to spray DDT in the Potlatch Unit of St. Joe National Forest. Includes safety plans.
An outline of every aspect of the Douglas-Fir Tussock Moth control project to take place in the St. Joe National Forest. Includes everything from pre and post monitoring procedures to be undertaken by entomologists to safety plans for the plane operators.

1966
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
A biology field trip William Hunt prepping chipmunks for mammal study.
Biology field trip, students studying plants.

1967
Spruce Budworm, one of the most destructive forests pests, are in need of control and even though DDT is a known toxic chemical to the environment its use has been deemed worth the alternative forest losses.
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.

1968
Field Trip down the Snake River. Boat named 'Idaho Queen II'
Field Trip down the Snake River. Boat named 'Idaho Queen II'
Field Trip down the Snake River.
Pend Oreille County Washington Workshop in the Kaniksu National Forest
Seining in Huft Lake.
Diving in Huft Lake Pend Oreille County Washington
Seining in Huft Lake.

1969
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
The primary objective of the study was to determine whether or not the mountain pine beetle in white pine could be manipulated through the use of synthetic trans-verbenol plus alpha pine.

1970
A hand drawn sketch of a polar bear.
A hand drawn sketch of a Townsend's chipmunk.
A hand drawn sketch of a cotton tail rabbit.
A hand drawn sketch of a walrus.
A hand drawn sketch of a least chipmunk.
A hand drawn sketch of an uinta chipmunk.
A hand drawn sketch of a cliff chipmunk.
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.

1971
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
Squirrel in the woods.
A bear walking down a dirt road.
A bird posing on a pine tree.
Bird mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Owl mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Bird mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Owl mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Owl mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Canine mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho.
Duck mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Bird mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
Bird mounted by the son of James W. Pate, Shoshone, Idaho
This research paper describes the economic importance of Pine to Honduras and how the pine beetle is influencing the forests.

1972
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.

1973
A black and white photo of a frog in someone's hand.
A black and white photo of a forested mountain scene.
A black and white photo of a grouse on a log.
A black and white photo of a grouse on a log.
A black and white photo of a display case containing several species of forest rodents.
A black and white photo of a man holding a rodent.
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
A black and white photo of a porcupine emerging from behind a tree.
A black and white photo of two men inspecting gopher eskers.
A black and white photo of men on the beach counting collected rodents.
Defoliation in a second growth stand of Douglas Fir and Ponderosa Pine. Near La Grande, Oregon. The past years defoliation shows.
A male adult Douglas Fir Tussock Moth.
A male DFTM larva in its 6th instar.

1974
LtoR: Unidentified; Murphy, Tim; Callaway, Cookie; Unidentified; Longstreet, John (205 Pilot)
DDT Spray Project Douglas Fir Tussock Moth: Pilot Mike Wilton
Tussock Moth Damage
Tussock Moth Damage
Bell 206 Observer Helicopter - Emory Hall - Owner/Pilot
Browns Meadow Heliport: LtoR: Gruler, Jack; Jenni, Don; Cox, Rayce
Browns Meadow Heliport 1st Day of Spraying
Emory Hall's 206-Bell Observation Helicopter
Spraying DDT on Douglas Fir Tussock Moth in Northern Idaho
Evergreen 205-Bell Landing for Pesticide Recharge
Moscow Mountain Heliport:LtoR:Jenni, Don; Cox, Royce; Almas, D.
Ken Till - USFS Heliport Locater talking to landowner
EPA Representative Photographing Damage on Mineral Mountain
Left - Ken Till - USFS Heliport Locater Rt. Landowner
EPA Rep. on Mineral Mountain
Landowner and Turkeys
Bell 205 Spraying N. Moscow Mountain
Browns Meadow Heliport (Dewey Almas, Project Director, Right Center hand in pocket)
Pointing at Tussock Moth Damage
Fire Weather Mobile Station
Monitoring Equipment
Tussock Moth Damage
Tussock Moth Damage
DFTM Project Gold Hill Heliport
DDT Spray Project Douglas Fir Tussock Moth: Lyon, James; Crowe, John; Emerson, Ellis. The men are reading two maps. The writing on the truck reads: 'Fire Weather Mobile Station U.S. Dept. of Commerce Weather Service 14-62'.
Evergreen Helicopter Bell-205 being serviced between sorties
Gold Hill Heliport DFTM Project
Brown's Meadow Heliport Bell 205 Landing for Pesticide Refill
Gold Hill Heliport DFTM Project
Douglas-fir Tussock Moth lowering on silken thread after being sprayed w/ DDT
Tour: foreground Cox, Royce; Bousfield, Wayne; Bundy, Wayne
Foreground LtoR:Lister, Ken; Finan, Chuck Background right at microscope Rose, Debbie; Chancellor, John; Homing, Fred (watching)
Gold Hill Heliport DFTM Project
DFTM Project Bundy on left Bill Cesla on right in yellow shirt
Environmental Monitoring
Counting DFTM Damaged Needles
DFTM Headquarters Planning
DFTM Headquarters Planning
DFTM Examination
Moses Mtn Subdivision Residuals Against Spray
Barbara Bircher of Potlatch, DFTM pop. Monitoring crewman
Tussock Moth Headquarters: Lister, Ken (green shirt); Smith, Laura (long black hair); Douglas, Steve (next to Laura); Livingston, Tadd (orange chair)
Heliport at Potlatch Headquarters
Lef to Right: Satckwell, Red; Livingston, Tadd; Fisker, Sally
Rex Johnson Info officer Moses Mtn Subdivision Tussock Moth no spray area
Potlatch High School Headquarters for Tussock Moth Control
Long Jack
Long Jack
Tussock Moth Damage
Potlatch Mill Yard: Pilot (near helicopter); mill foremen (hard hats); Grarelle, Paul (Potlatch Corp. no hat); Till, Ken (FS uniform yellow hat)
Parking lot at Potlatch

1975
This report summarizes the results of a 1974 forest protection project using DDT for control of the Douglas-fir tussock moth.
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.

1976
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.

1977
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
Lecture given by Senator Frank Church. Introduction by Dr. John H, Ehrenreich: Dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, and Director of the Wilderness Research Center at the Univeristy of Idaho. The lecture covers the Senator's perspective of his election in 1962 and how his campaign was linked to the Wilderness Bill. It then covers the following years and how the Wilderness Act was put into action by various branches of the government and how continued action needed to be made by congress. The lecture also touches on how other lands can be managed better to make up for the loss of the lands deemed 'Wilderness'. Lastly the lecture reviews various interpretations of the Wilderness Act and how use of the land deemed 'Wilderness' is being too restricted by certain government orginizations. Several references are given in a bibliography and a table is included as well.

1978
Lecture given by Dr. Roderick Nash. Introduction by Dr. John H, Ehrenreich: Dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, and Director of the Wilderness Research Center at the Univeristy of Idaho. Dr. Nash's lecture opens with a bold statement that 'Wilderness does not exist' and is instead 'a state of mind evoked by a state of nature' and then proceeds to define wilderness as seen by the Wilderness Act. He claims that maps have an 'erosive effect on wilderness' and that wilderness used to be 'a circle on a map' that 'concentrated on keeping things like roads and buildings out'. The lecture details how management became a necesity as time went by and more people recreated in the National Parks and Wilderness Areas and that usage 'could damage natural conditions just as severely as lumbering, mining, and commercial grazing.', he emphazises this through the use of visitor statistics. The lecture then explores the idea of a 'carrying capacity of wilderness, the impact of people on nature.' The main point is summed up, wilderness management is a contradiction in terms, but necessary for there to to be any semblance of wilderness for people to experience; that they must 'manage so that less management is necessary.' A bibliography is included.

1979
Lecture given by Secretary of the Interior Cecil D. Andrus. Introduction by Dr. John H, Ehrenreich: Dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, and Director of the Wilderness Research Center at the Univeristy of Idaho. The lecture opens with Andrus' own experiences in the wilderness and how he developed his philosophy of 'environmental concern' using it as a central campaign issue. Andrus expresses the need to learn from the mistakes of the past and to treat the wildernesss with common sense, becoming good stewards. The lecture highlights the dichotomy of number of acres owned by the government, compared to the amount of those acres that have been designated 'Wilderness'. The lecture calls for a creation of a 'Department of Natural Resources as proposed by President Carter' to better orginize and manage wilderness. Lastly the lecture details the history of the conservation of wilderness in Alaska. The final point is once again how the U.S. would benefit from a Department of Natural Resources. Includes a bibliography.

1980
A letter indicating reasons for the following article's inability to be published. The article being one of a brief description of the new tree seedling nursery in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho.
Developed especially for the Coeur d'Alene Tree Nursery, this giant 'lifter' removes seedlings from their seedbed and gently separates tender roots from the surrounding soil.
After lifting, young trees are placed in protective packaging for their journey to the planting site.
These thriving two year-old seedlings are almost ready for their journey from nursery seedbeds to their planting site, where they will be ready for harvest in 80-100 years.
Despite its use of specialized machinery, the nursery still relies on skilled hand labor for many phases of its operation. About 350 area residents are employed on a part-time basis to accomplish such delicate tasks as weeding, thinning and hand lifting stock.
Following germination, container-grown stock is painstakingly hand-thinned, leaving the most vigorous seedling to flourish in each container. These new seedlings will be ready for planting in only a few months.
Lecture given by Patrick F. Noonan former President of The Nature Conservancy. Introduction by Dr. Ernest D. Ables: Associate Dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, and Director of the Wilderness Research Center at the Univeristy of Idaho. The lecture opens with a brief history of conservation as an idea in the United States and the current state of urbanization and pollution as well as predictions of urbanization in the future. The lecture goes on to describe the current attitude towards conservation and the environment in the 1980's and how that attitude is beginning to change. The lecture also touches on the education of real estate developers about conservation, that is to say, little or none. The attitude to shift is viewing the land as a commodity, to viewing it as a resource. It highlights the tension between the need for both urban growth and conservation in the future, an interdisciplinary effort. The lecture outlines some of the most pressing problems for conservation in the 80's. Another perspective change is the percieved value of the 'free work' of nature, and how to evaluate the economic value of nature as it exists as a whole, not just it's resources. The lecture closes with a commendation to organize and to work together to continue to make conservation more efficient in the future. Bibliography included.

1981
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
A spatially dependent tree growth projection model was developed and used to simulate juvenile grand fir, Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl., Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, and ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa Laws., in northern Idaho. Simulated experiments using the model examined the effects of Douglas-fir tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata McDunnough, defoliation on stand dynamics during the first 40 years of stand development. The sequence and intensity of the defoliation episodes were varied for different combinations of age, stand density, and tree species composition at the time of the first defoliation. The results are summarized in statistical models which predict the long-term effects of tussock moth defoliationon stand dynamics. Results indicate that the insect regulates primary forest production by reducing stand biomass and by redistributing growth energy from host to nonhost trees by altering intertree competitive relationships to the advantage of nonhosts.
Lecture given by Russell E. Dickenson, Director of the National Park Service. Introduction by Dr. John H, Ehrenreich: Dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences at the Univeristy of Idaho. The lecture begins by defining 'wilderness' focusing specifcally on the definition of 'a wild condition or quality'. The lecture then compares conservation and management to that of a librarian caring for, organizing, and learning from books. The lecture claims that returning to the untouched wilderness of the past is undesirable, but instead to balance an increased demand of public recreation with preservation and protection. Examples are given of increased visitor use and management of humans is named the most difficult long term management problem. The lecture ends with what protection looks like, for what purposes, and how managers are to go about protecting National Parks and teaching others how to protect them in the future.

1982
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.
Lecture given by Michael Frome. Introduction by Dr. Terry R. Armstrong, Executive Assistant to the President, University of Idaho. The lecture looks at the concept of wilderness preservation and the viability of it in the 1980's socio-political context. Frome opens with a commentary on Secretary of the Interior, James G. Watt's view of wilderness. He rebuttals the Secretary's extreme views of Democrats and environmentalists with the idea that conservation is the American mindset. The lecture then emphasizes the need to preserve wilderness, 'for its own sake, not for its utility'. This is again emphasized through the metaphor of an interpreter of art; humans cannot create a landscape, only enjoy it and create homages to nature,quoting and citing many authors and artists. The article then expresses Frome's strong belief in the 'reverence of life' that all lives (including those of plants and animals) are important and that 'we are responsible to the future and for the present. The lecture then details victories of conservation in Idaho, including the River of No Return Wilderness. The lecture concludes with the speaker's dedication to the idea of democracy as a tool for the people to gain power and responsibility of conserving wilderness. Bibliography is included and the last page is an announcement by Dr. Edwin E. Krumpe, Director of the Wilderness Research Center, University of Idaho, of the Michael Frome Scholarship for Excellence in Conservation Writing. The title page of this copy of the lecture is signed by the speaker, Michael Frome.

1983
An overview of up to date issues faced by foresters concerning cone and seed insects. Includes lists of current and future publications on related material.

1984
An individual-tree simulation model called Prognosis and an economic subroutine called CHEAPO were used to determine financial rotation ages (in this analysis defined as the age at which net present value is maximized) for stands grown with genetically improved and unimproved western larch (Larix occidentalis) in north Idaho. Three hypothetical but reasonable growth functions were tested on two site classes. Sensitivity analyses showed that the tree improvement investment was likely to be profitable at 4 and 5 percent discount rates on excellent sites and at 4 percent on good sites. The analysis was most sensitive to changes in discount rate, site quality, and cone production rate. It was moderately sensitive to variation in time to seed production, number of productive orchard years, and differences among the assumed biological functions. As the hypothetical growth functions were designed to be conservative, economic gains are likely to be larger than those indicated in the analysis.
A report on a forest tree nutrition study conducted by the University of Idaho in cooperation with the USDA Forest Service, Potlatch Corporation, the Idaho Department of Lands, and others to evaluate the effects of thinning and nitrogen fertilization.
Lecture given by Brock Evans. Opening remarks by Dr. Ed Krumpe, Associate Professor in the University of Idaho Department of Wildland Recreation Management and Director of the University of Idaho Wilderness Research center. Introduction by Michael Frome. The lecture commences with a brief discussion of Evans' recent defeat in the run for congress, as touched on in the introduction, and why he is glad to be back at the University. The lecture details the long hours and intensive schedule needed to campaign for office, the impact on a canadite's psyche and the process of learning how to operate as a politician. The lecture then ties into the subject of wilderness and why people feel so strongly about it. Evans gives his own first experience with wilderness, in Glacier National Park, how he moved to Seatle, and got a job protecting wilderness areas with the Sierra Club. The lecture continues the story of Evans' congressional defeat and how a trip into Olympic National Park helped him to heal from that experience. The lesson of the wilderness, he says, is that there is something out there bigger than ourselves and that it will go on. The lecture then sites environmentalists throughout America's history calling for it's preservation, and now that that preservation exists people should not forget that it was fought hard for. The lecture continues with a look at how far conservation has come in four states since the 1960's. Lastly two stories are told exemplifying Evans' motto of 'endless pressure, endlessly applied' as a strategy for winning wilderness conservation through polotics and an example is given of the happy results after those victories are won. At the end of the lecture there is a question and answer section. The last page holds a promotion for the Wilderness Research Center.

1985
A document detailing information about operational fertilization programs in simple bullet points. Some bullet points a blank indicating the document could be an outline or notes for a class or lecture.

1987
Empirical yield tables for leucaena plantations in the Phillippines were developed. Site index and height growth equations were developed as components of leucaena growth and yield. The relationships between volume and biomass per ha and top height were quantified. The yield tables and site index equation can be applied in the Phillippines and perhaps other geographic areas where leucaena grows under similar edaphic and management conditions. The methodology described in this paper should be applicable to a variety of tree species grown in even-aged stands.
Lecture given by Dr. Jay D. Hair, President of the National Wildlife Federation. Introduction by Dr. Edwin E. Krumpe, Director of the University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center. The lecture opens by touching on three aspects of the wilderness debate: Promises, Poetry, and Pragmatism. The promises section opens with the history of The Wilderness Act, and how it is only until recently that wilderness has been viewed as 'a vital part of civilization'. The poetry section looks to shed light on why we need wilderness using excerpts of poetry from two poets. The last section, pragmatism, explains how the problems of conserving wilderness are growing more complex and so our perspectives should grow as well. Mass exctinction is addressed as a large problem, and not just a poetic problem, a pragmatic one, that affects the scientific community, not to mention the economy. An example of scientific research is given to emphasize the importance of long term scientific research. Statistics are shared to highlight the global pharmaceutical industries releiance on wilderness, and Idaho's dependence on wilderness to fuel the local tourism industry. Emphasis is laid, once again, on the importance of long term scientific research in wilderness. The lecture compares President John Kennedy's push to land a man on the moon to the possibility of creating an inventory of the earth's resources. The lecture continues with a challenge to ask the right questions when doing research, to organize our efforts and relate the research to other science and socioeconomic research, forming a complete picture. Lastly the lecture challanges us to have a new attitude towards research, to let it be chaotic, controversial, and moved into the sphere of politics and lawmaking quickly. Bibliography included. The last page holds a promotion for the Wilderness Research Center.

1988
Lecture given by Ian Player DSM. Opening remarks by Dr. Edwin E. Krumpe associate professor at the Univeristy of Idaho, Department of Wildland Recreation Management, and Director of the Wilderness Research Center. Introduction by John C. Hendee, Dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences at the University of Idaho. The lecture opens with thanks and greetings, and an anecdote about how gatherings are best held in the outdoors, which inspire dignity. The lecture is a testimony to Player's own experience with wilderness and how it has impacted his life. The lecture opens with the context of his country, South Africa, which is complicated. It continues with the speaker's perspective of World War II from the front lines in Italy. After the war Player canoed a 110 miles stretch of the African wilderness, his first experience in the wild. The lecture then details Player's experience on the Natal Parks Board and protecting wildlife from poachers. The lecture gives an example of humans being an important predator in the ecosystem. Poetry is touched on as an important tool to communicate the value of conservation. The lecture transitions into the story of Player's involvement in the protection of the endangered White Rhino and antelope. Once again Player speaks of how taking people on treks into the wilderness in small groups changes their perspectives. The lecture details the wisdom of a South African native Magqubu Ntombela who knew much and taught Player a lot about the land and it's wildlife. The story of how those wilderness treks turned into The Wilderness Leadership School, often a spiritual experience for those who participated. The gatherings at the end of these treks then turned into The World Wilderness Congress, where people from many countries gathered to inspire conservation. The lecture concludes with an illustration of hope, and an exhortation to build the future on hope. The lecture concludes with thanks and a benediction.

1989
The use of principal components analysis to study tree stem profiles was critically analyzed during 1085 destructively sampled Douglas-fir trees and 1260 simulated trees with known geometric shapes. Interpretation about the meaning of each principal component is provided and contrasted with others in the forestry literature. Nearly identical results with both the destructively sampled and simulated trees, along with certain theoretical consideratons, indicate that the principal components are related to tree form as opposed to tree profile or taper. Therefore, principal components analysis is a useful analytical tool for stratifying trees into different form groups.
A study of nitrogen fertilization response in thinned and unthinned stands of grand fir (Abies grandis) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in northern Idaho showed that the application of one urea nitrogen treatment applied at a rate of 200 lb N/ac resulted in a significantly higher average basal area growth over a 6-year post-treatment period. Nitrogen fertilization also resulted in a significant height increment increase over the same period. Fourteen years after treatment, fertilization had increased average tree size, in terms of total cubic volume, by 14% in unthinned and by 23% in thinned stands. A comparison of thinned and unthinned stands suggested an increase in tree size (>300%) over the same period without significant reduction in average total cubic volume per acre. Patterns of stand development were altered by nitrogen fertilization.
Stem analysis data from Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugam enziesii) collectetd throughout the inland Northwest were used for testing height growth and site index equations. The equations performed well in northern and centraI ldaho, northeast Oregon, and northeast Washington on vegetative types similar to those sampled in model development. However, if the equations were applied on drier sites outside the original geographic study area, overestimates of height growth and underestimates of site index could result. Therefore, revised height growth and site index equations are presented for western Montana and central Washington.
Lecture given by Chief Oren Lyons, professor at the Department of American Studies and Director of Native American Studies at the State University of New York at Buffalo. Opening words by Dr. James R. Fazio, head of the Department of Wildland Recreation Management and acting Director of the Wilderness Research Center. Introduction by John C. Hendee, dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences at the University of Idaho. The lecture opens with a traditional greeting. Chief Lyons refers to the introduction and emphasizes the great respect that he has for spiritual leaders, and that he is not one. Chief Lyons also clarifies that he cannot speak for all the Indian nations, but that they do have a common understanding, ethic, and spiritual experience in regards to the land and the earth. The lecture touches on the irony of white men trying to eradicate the indigenous peoples' way of life, but then requiring guidance from those peoples, guidance they are only able to provide because of their way of life. Frustration at false spiritual leaders and 'shammans' is expressed and a reminder is given that this is a selfish and cheap way to treat the traditions held for so long by many people. The spiritual law of the Native Americans is explained and emphisis is laid on maintaining stable life support systems, namely water resources. History is given to detail the treaties forged between the founding fathers and the Native Americans. The lecture emphasizes our responsibilities to honor the treaties that our fore-fathers signed. This goal can be accomplished, it will take hard work but Chief Lyons thinks we are capable, we have a common cause, the future of wilderness and the rest of the earth.

1990
Diameter-increment models for nitrogen-fertilized stands were developed using data from permanent research plots in northern Idaho. The equations partially resembled PROGNOSIS model diameter growth formulations. Results indicated that both initial tree size and initial stand density produced significant interactions with treatment to explain an individual tree's response to fertilization. Larger trees in a stand showed more fertilization response than smaller trees. Furthermore, individual trees in low-density stands showed more fertilization response than those growing in high density stands. These diameter increment predictive equations were formulated to be compatible with individual-tree distance-independent simulation models.
Capability to represent effects of fertilization has been added to the Prognosis Model for Stand Development. As implemented in version 6, the extension is calibrated only for applications of 200 lb nitrogen applied in the form of urea. Direct and indirecteffects are based on growth 10 years after treatment for diameter effects, and 6 years after treatment for height effects. Mortality is not affected in the model. After 10 years, only indirect effects are represented through the normal dynamics of the Prognosis Model. Control of timing is provided through a keyword, the parameters of which are documented in this note.

1992
A disaggregation function, relative size-growth (RSG) function, is proposed and developed to distribute stand volume growth to a list of individual trees. The relative size-growth (RSG) function is formulated as a quadratic equation relating relative tree growth to relative tree size in a stand. The shape of the RSG function is linear, convex, or concave depending on initial stand conditions and structure. A recursive system of equations is developed to predict the three coefficients of the RSG function using initial stand density, mean tree size and coefficient of variation of tree size distribution as predictor variables. This disaggregation function determines within-stand growth of individual trees and simulates stand development and dynamics. The RSG function provides a biologically based link between whole-stand and individual tree resolution models.
Interest in tree nutrition and the use of fertilizers in forests of the interior West has grown over the last 20 years. Large-scale fertilizer trials have been established to estimate growth response for Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine. Current research focuses on where and why fertilizer response is obtained and how fertilization interacts with other forest management activities. Nitrogen is the major growth-limiting nutrient in these forests. For Douglas-fir, gross volume growth responses to 224 kg N /ha may average up to 25% during the first six years following fertilization. Similar treatments in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine have produced a 30% volume response in five and six years, respectively. Response has been shown to vary across parent materials and soil types; it is usually less on sites with high levels of mineralizable nitrogen in the soil, high foliar nitrogen concentrations, or high site index. Good response to nitrogen fertilization has been linked to vegetation control in very young stands and to stocking control in older stands. Nitrogen fertilization may increase mortality rates and the incidence of pest problems. While other nutrients usually do not produce a significant growth response when applied singly, response to nitrogen may be limited by natural or induced deficiencies of other nutrients. Lack of sulfur, boron, or copper can reduce growth response to nitrogen in lodgepole pine; low potassium levels may have a similar effect in Douglas-fir; and addition of other nutrients, primarily sulfur, has increased response to nitrogen in ponderosa pine.
Fertilized stands of Pseudotsuga menziesii were found to have glaucous needles. We investigated the morphological and quantitative characteristics of the epicuticular waxes of needles of fertilized and control trees. Glaucousness was caused by ornate tubular epicuticular wax. Dipping needles in chloroform, which dissolves waxes, eliminated the glaucous appearance. Based on cryostage scanning electron microscopic observations, the epicuticular waxes in the nonstomatal region were much more ornate on the needles of the fertilized trees (experimental needles) than in unfertilized trees (control needles). The stomatal region in both experimental and control needles showed similarly ornate waxes. Quantities of waxes were similar in experimental and control needles. The glaucousness was not the result of greater quantities of wax; rather, fertilization altered wax morphology in the nonstomatal regions.
Lecture given by William A. Worf, President of Wilderness Watch. Opening remarks given by Dr. Edwin E. Krumpe, principal scientist for the Wilderness Research Center and associate professor in the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism. Introduction by John C. Hendee, dean of the Collefe of Forestry, Wildlife and Rancge Sciences, and acting director of the Wilderness Reseach Center. The lecture opens with the story of Aldo Leopold and others who inspired the idea of wilderness in the United States. How wilderness has been percieved and protected in the 60's is then given a brief description, including the operations and vision of a task force put into effect by the Forest Service after the Wilderness Act is passed. The struggle of defining how to manage wilderness differently than a recreation area is portrayed. The lecture shows hope in the way wilderness will be prioritized by the Forest Service in the future and steps to be taken to assure that comes about. The lecture concludes with the concept as wilderness being the central vision of the Forest Service in the 21st century. List of speakers and their lectures and the years they spoke is included at the end of the paper.
Lecture given by Roger Contor. Introduction by John C. Hendee, dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, and director of the Wilderness Research Center. The lecture starts by calling for better political representation for the National Parks. The history of the role (or lack therof) that the Parks played in the Wilderness Act is reviewed as is the reason that the Parks manage their lands differently from the Forest Service. The lecturer displays a few slides of Alaskan Wilderness and Idaho superimposed on a map of Alaska to show the extent and porportion of wilderness in that state. The lecture also displays three species (the grizzly bear, the Dall sheep, and the caribou) as exhibits of what the wilderness holds. The lecturer then expresses his opinion that the National Parks have failed to lead the charge in political protection of wilderness. The lecturer proposes that the solution is to: 'Establish wilderness leadership at the top. Appoint leaders who understand wilderness. Educate people that No Trace Wilderness is possible. Document wilderness values with research. Support those who seek excellence in wilderness. Protect the mystery of wilderness. Reopen communication with Congress. Re-establish cooperative relationships with conservation organizations. Restore wilderness naturalness. Re-establish natural fire regimes. Establish trail patterns compatible with wilderness. Protect diversity with appropriate management. Eliminate wilderness structures and non-historic artifacts. Establish a high ethic for legal hunting in the Alaskan park units. Restore the professional spirit of the Park Service.' The lecture closes with a few more points about the benefits of wilderness as a mesuring stick for the how we are affecting the rest of the world and placing the blame soundly on the political leaders once again. A list of past lecturers and the titles of their lectures are listed.

1993
An approach for estimating asymptotic forest stand yield, basal area, and tree density (number of stems per unit of area) is proposed. Available forest stand growth data are used to establish the reciprocal equation of Competition-Density (C-D) effect and develop equations relating the coefficients of C-D effect to stand top height. Asymptotic stand yield, basal area, and tree density are derived based on bio-mathematical rationales and expressed as functions of asymptotic top height. Asymptotic top height can be obtained for different site qualities and/or habitat types by evaluating a height growth model in the limit as age approaches infinity. Estimated asymptotes can be utilized to parameterize sigmoid-shaped growth functions (e.g., Richards growth model) for developing forest growth and yield models.
Document outlining the plan for the IFTNC for the next 5 years, it includes a goal statement and an experiment with the following Preface: Previous results from IFTNC Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine experiments suggest a link between nutrition, particularly potassium nutrition, and insect and disease pests. Mortality rates in the Douglas-fir trials were significantly higher instands with poor pre-treatment foliar K status after application of 400 lbs. of N/ Ac. lnterestingly, the most common mortality causes in this K status/ treatment category were root rots and bark beetles. Results from the Montana ponderosa pine experiment showed that N only treated plots experienced higher mortality rates, producing a net loss in volume growth after 4 years. Conversely, N + K treated plots showed less mortality than control plots. The net volume growth effect associated with adding K was highly significant. Mortality on the N only plots was six times as great as control plot mortality; over 80% of it resulting from bark beetle activity N+ K plots showed less mortality than control plots with no bark beetle mortality.
The fertilizer, herbicide, and combination treatments generally had a significant positive effect on tree growth, although response was quite variable between sites. sometimes the response was very large approaching 70% for some sites. Generally N-P-K fertilizer only treatment was most effective in the larger (pole) sized stands, while the herbicide treatment was not. The results were the opposite for the young stands, the herbicide treatment produced better response than fertilizer only treatment. However, the combined fertilizer and herbicide treatment was sometimes the best treatment for the young stands. Interestingly, similar to the IFTNC results, foliar KIN ratio (actually the change in the ratio) was a significant predictor of response. If the KIN ratio decreased (usually associated with the fertilizer only treatment) following treatment, then response was negative; however, if the KIN ratio increased (always associated with the combined treatment), then growth response was positive and substantially so.
In 1987 six fertilizer trials were established in ponderosa pine stands in western Montana, USA to test if K amendments to N fertilizers could ameliorate increases in tree mortality associated with N fertilization. Treatments were no fertilizer, 225 kg ha-1' of N, or 225 kg ha-1' of both N and K. Foliage samples were collected and analyzed for nutrients one year following treatment and tree heights and diameters were measured at the time of and four years after treatment. Analysis of covariance results showed that fertilization with N alone produced a negative net volume response, but plots receiving both N and K responded positively, producing a highly significant K effect. Treatment differences resulted from heavy tree mortality caused by mountain pine beetle occurring on N treated plots, but not on N+K treated plots. Regression of net volume response on foliar nutrient levels indicated that negative response (beetle mortality) occurred in stands having high initial foliar N concentrations and low K:N ratios. When fertilized with N+K, these stands showed similar net response as all other stands. Fertilization with N alone appears to have made these stands more susceptible to bark beetle mortality, but addition of K to the fertilizer mix prevents this increase in mortality and allows the stands to respond positively to N additions.
Fertilization treatments, (control, 200 lb N/acre, and 200 lb N + 200 lb K lacre), were applied to six Douglas-fir installations (36 plots) in the Klickitat area of south-central Washington, in October, 1990. Measurements were taken before the application of the treatments and again in the Fall of 1992. All live plot trees were tagged and measured for total height and diameter for pre-treatment and diameter only for post-treatment. Foliage samples were collected in Fall, 1991 and analyzed by Camas Analytical Lab, Missoula, Montana. The detailed information about stand characteristics and foliar nutrients for each installation are provided in Appendix A and B. The objective of the statistical analysis is to investigate the treatment effects on stand basal area growth and response. Additional analyses were conducted to relate stand basal area response to pre and post treatment foliage nutrient status.
The method of percentiles usually involves simultaneously solving equations for probability distribution parameters as functions of sample-based estimates of the appropriate quantiles. Eight simple distribution-free methods for estimating quantiles from sample-based order statistics were evaluated empirically using even-aged Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco) diameter distributions from the Inland Northwest. Two methods, calculated by weighting adjacent order statistics. consistently gave the best results for both the Weibull and Johnson's So distributions. Certain distributional shapes were also evaluated to determine if they influenced the quantile estimation method. Although some influence was detected. the best methods were usually best across all categories.
A disaggregation function, relative size-growth (RSG), was proposed and developed for interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca [Beissn] Franco) to distribute stand volume to a list of individual trees. The RSG function was formulated as a quadratic equation relating relative tree growth to relative tree size in a stand. The shape of the RSG function was linear, convex, or concave depending on initial stand conditions and structure. A recursive system of equations was developed to predict the three coefficients of the RSG function using initial stand density, mean tree size, and coefficient of variation of tree size distribution as predictor variables. This disaggregation function determines within-stand growth of individual trees and simulates stand development and dynamics. The RSG function provides a biologically based link between whole-stand and individual tree resolution models.
The distribution of within-stand basal growth following silvicultural treatments was investigated using a relative size -relative growth (RSG) function. The effects of thinning on the distdbution of tree basal area, including changes in location or scale, can be incorporated into the estimation of the RSG function parameters. Additional stand growth due to fertilization can also be allocated to individual trees using the same RSG function, since the contribution of a tree's response to total stand treatment response depends on its relative size in the stand. Statistical tests and validation of the RSG function indicated that thinning and fertilization do not alter the characteristic relationships between tree size, stand density, stand structure, and the relative distribution of growth across size classes within a stand. Therefore, silvicultural treatment growth responses predicted at a whole-stand level of resolution can be disaggregated to a list of individual trees using the RSG function developed from untreated plots.

1994
Nearly all forest sites in this region are nutrient deficient, usually only nitrogen but sometimes potassium as well. Other elements may be limiting but not as commonly as these two. Forest fertilization can alleviate these deficiencies resulting in trees that should be more resistant to insects and diseases. Recent results suggest that it may be possible to alter tree root chemistry to the detriment of Armillaria ostoyae root rot by manipulating tree nutritional status, particularly by using potassium fertilization treatments.
A set of papers outlining how to install plots for an experiment, as well as data collection sheets for the same experiment.
Post fertilization nitrogen, sulphur and potassium foliar nutrient concentrations were examined for several species of conifers. This study found grand fIr (Abies grandis) foliar nitrogen uptake and potassium levels were higher than compared species Douglas-fir (pseudotsuga menziesii), ponderosa pine (pinus ponderosa) and lodgepole pine (pinus contorta var. latifolia). Douglas-fir foliar nutrient concentrations were higher than ponderosa pine or lodgepole pine. The addition of nitrogen alone tends to cause a decrease in foliar potassium levels for all the species examined. Increases in nitrogen foliar concentrations were consistently higher on the nitrogen alone treatments than the nitrogen plus sulphur treatments.
Lecture given by Bill Reffalt. Opening Remarks by Edwin E. Krumpe principal scientist for the Wilderness Research Center and professor in the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism. Introuction by John C. Hendee dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences and director of the University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center. The lectre opens with a definition of wilderness and what that means for National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS). An introduction is given for the NRWS and how it's purpose is to protect the fish and wildlife, not it's reputation among humans. Refuges span across the United States and it's territories, often focusing on endangered or threatened species. A color slideshow was then presented by the lecturer. The slideshow begins with Alaska, portraying the caribou as a token species that uses the wilderness. In the Pacific Northwest wilderness can be found along the coastline. In the Southwest many desert biomes have been preserved as wilderness. The Midwest and Lake States are home to natural prairies and marshlands. The Northeast holds a 3,000 acre forest swamp. The Southeast has their unique swampland, the Everglades. The lecture then discusses how the Wilderness Act was applied to those refuges, mostly poorly. The lecture then details how that poor enaction of the legeslation is being changed. Unique problems associated with different types of wilderness are described, including Island Wilderness and U.S. Military activity in wilderness. The lecture then details a future plan to incorporate the NWRS with the Wilderness Act. The current paradigm that wildlife managers are operating under is described and a call is made to shift that paradigm. The new model is described as a holistic management program. The proposal is made that wilderness itself is a tool for managers to use, a baseline resource. A list of opportunities that wilderess gives to managers of refuge systems is given. The lecture closes with a Walt Whitman quote. A bibliography is included. A list of past lecturers and the titles of their lectures are listed.

1995
Post fertilization foliar nitrogen and potassium concentrations and needle weights were examined for Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menzeisii), lodgepole pine (pinus contorta) and ponderosa pine (pinus ponderosa) in north central Washington. Foliar nitrogen concentration was found to increase and foliar potassium concentration to remain the same or decrease following fertilization. Lodgepole pine showed the most efficient uptake for both nitrogen and potassium. Potassium to nitrogen ratios decreased following treatment. Needle weights for lodgepole pine increased following fertilization. Foliar magnesium, boron, iron and zinc levels were also examined for lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine occurring on pumice soils versus glacial till soils. Response to treatment varied widely, but expected nutrient deficiencies due to pumice soils did not materialize except for lodgepole pine magnesium levels on untreated plots. Boron and iron showed unexpected increases on pumice soils following combined nitrogen and potassium treatment, leading us to suspect that some other soil layer may underlie the pumice soil.
Four years after fertilizer treatments were applied, the average gross rf volume per acre increased 13% on those plots receiving 200 lb. nitrogen (N) acre and 10% on those plots receiving 200 lb. N acre plus 200 lb. potassium (K) acre. Absolute and relative gross and net volume response show similar treatment effects. The addition of K in the fertilizer mix did not directly increase volume growth over the controls, but K did decrease mortality. In addition, results from this study show that K significantly increased tree height growth.
Lecture given by Michael Dombeck, acting Director of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Opening remarks given by Edwin E. Krumpe, principal scientist for the Wilderness Research Center and professor in the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism. Introduction by John C. Hendee director of the UI Wilderness Research Center and former dean of the College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences. The lecture opens with the theme for the past three lectures and how this lecture about the BLM will match that theme as well. The history of the BLM and the Wilderness Act is breifly gone over as well as how their relationship was affected by the Federal Lands Policy and Management Act (FLPMA). Then the current status of the BLM and the FLPMA is given an overview. An inventory of BLM land was taken and the result was 26,000,000 acres were recommended for wilderness designation. That land was managed differently than other BLM lands and designated Wilderness Study Areas (WSAs). Studies were then conducted on these lands, attempting to find out if the area was better suitable for wilderness or nonwilderness uses, the process of how that is answered is further described in the lecture. At the time the lecture was given all studies had been completed and the recommendations from those studies were pending in Congress. During the 1980's time was taken to prepare for these new wilderness areas by creating management policies, borrowing heavily from the other wilderness agencies. Some areas were designated by congress as wilderness in order for the BLM too put these management policies into practice. Vision is cast for the near future of managing these lands, much of that happening in the political realm. A description of the diversity of BLM lands is given based on physical, socio-economic, and institutional and management charactersitics. The lecture ends will a call for the public to take part in caring for wilderness on BLM lands. A list of past lecturers and the titles of their lectures are listed.
Lecture given by Jon Roush, president of the Wilderness Society. Opening remarks given by James R. Fazio, professor in the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism, College of Foretry, Wildlife and Range Sciences. Introduction given by John C. Hendee director of the University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center. The lecture opens discussing the previous lectures in the series and how this lecture will differ from the rest. The lecture will detail the threats to wilderness and what can be done to stop them. The lecture clarifies that a threat against wilderness is a threat against wilderness values and then asks the question why we have those values in the first place. We value wilderness for diversity, immediate utility, spirituality (spiritual healing), 'land ethic' because it is ethical to value and protect it. The biggest threat that the lecturer focuses on is population growth. The exponential rate at which the world's population is growing is highlighted. The fact that earth's resources are finite is addressed, in particular food and water resources. A discussion is made about the possibility of the U.S. declining their consumption and lowering their standard of living, but the lecturer says this isn't a solution, it's an inevitability. China is contrasted to our nation as a picture of what we could become, but not one we want to emulate. The consquences of a doubled population in the U.S. by 2020 are discussed. One of those consquences that is detailed in length is the incresed use of wilderness recreation areas, national parks and national forests. The other change that comes with an increasing population is unpredictable cultural change; shifts in perception, even what is right and wrong, regarding wilderness. 'Our wilderness system depends... on people's willingness to take the long view, to act responsibly toward future generations, and to give up some personal gain for the common good.' Two issues for safegaurding wilderness against this danger are explored: How to build an informed, diverse consituency for wilderness and how to confront population issues directly and openly. The lecture then turns to public land policy. A call is given to complete the federal wilderness system while there is still time, wilderness designation and land aquisition are also priorities. But the most crucial element is wilderness management. The National Wildlife Refuge System is used for many purposes other than being a refuge to wildlife, the purpose of these systems must be spelled out in the legislature and enforced. Agencies should combine forces to manage wilderness in tandem. Our goals for wilderness can no longer be economical, but rather ecological. Legislators cannot become lax about environmental regulations put on private land. Our actions and regulations now will affect the overpopulated generations of the future. A bibliography is included. A list of past lecturers and the titles of their lectures are listed.

1996
A report on a study conducted by Peter G. Mik. The study's objective was to develop equations for predicting the Douglas-fir site index of a site based on the physical and soil characteristics of the site. The equations were to be ranked according to the acquisition of any necessary data.
The IFTNC currently classifies parent materials based on four rock types: Basic-Igneous (Basaltic), Acid- Igneous (Granitic), Metasedimentary, and Mixed (glacial till). In order to further clarify health-related issues and their potential association with parent materials, a more specific classification of parent materials according to content of certain critical elements, especially potassium (K) would be helpful. Such a classification system should allow us to categorize the rock types found on geologic maps and publications according to element content and contribution to soil-available nutrient supply. The purpose of this paper is to present a classification of rock types based on K content; the discussion of rock contribution to soil-available K supply will be discussed separately. The following classification system was developed based on a literature review of basic mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical and geological information.
Two years after fertilization, overall gross basal area response was 31.1% on those plots receiving the 200 lb. nitrogen (N) acre and 33.8% on those plots receiving 200 lb. nitrogen plus 200 lb. potassium (K) acre. Results from this study show that response was different by species, with lodgepole pine expressing higher absolute and relative response than ponderosa pine, western larch or mixed conifer for both treatments. Sites that were predominately ponderosa pine expressed low growth but did show good relative (percent) response to the treatments. Western larch and mixed species sites expressed good absolute response. Gross Basal area response was similar to foliar nutrient and needle weight response. The addition of potassium to the fertilizer mix did not significantly affect two year basal area growth or response.
The spatial distribution of foliar nutrient concentrations in Douglas-fir and grand fir species was investigated in a study conducted in northern Idaho. Mensurational data were collected from 55 Douglas-fir and 69 grand fir individual trees from 14 one-half acre plots. Foliage samples from the third whorl ofeach tree were taken, and tree positions were mapped using a Global Positional System (GPS). A stochastic modeling method, the sequential conditional Gaussian simulation, was used to study tree volume and foliar nutrient flow dynamics. Spatial variations were analyzed between individual tree measurements and nitrogen, potassium and boron concentrations under different fertilization treatments. The study showed that there are species differences in the distribution of foliage nutrient concentrations and tree biomass. Potassium and boron concentrations were lower in plots treated with high nitrogen rates. Boron concentration values were higher on the untreated plot.
The IFTNC currently classifies parent materials based on four rock types: Basic-Igneous (Basaltic), Acid- Igneous (Granitic), Metasedimentary, and Mixed (glacial till). In order to further clarify health-related issues and their potential association with parent materials, a more specific classification of parent materials according to content of certain critical elements, especially potassium (K) would be helpful. Such a classification system should allow us to categorize the rock types found on geologic maps and publications according to element content and contribution to soil-available nutrient supply. The purpose of this paper is to present a classification of rock types based on K content; the discussion of rock contribution to soil-available K supply will be discussed separately. The following classification system was developed based on a literature review of basic mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical and geological information.
In spring of 1995 two fertilizer trials were installed on Boise Cascade lands in northeast Oregon, one at Clear Creek in a young Ponderosa pine plantation, the other at Noregaard in a natural mixed conifer stand. Six growth monitoring plots were established at each site, three of which were treated with a multi-nutrient fertilizer; the other three plots remained untreated for use as experimental controls. Plot sizes of 0.05 and 0.1 acres were used at the Clear Creek and Noregaard installations, respectively.
In spring of 1995 two fertilizer trials were installed on Boise Cascade lands in northeast Oregon, one at Clear Creek in a young Ponderosa pine plantation, the other at Noregaard in a natural mixed conifer stand. Six growth monitoring plots were established at each site, three of which were treated with a multi-nutrient fertilizer; the other three plots remained untreated for use as experimental controls.
Individual tree height-diameter equations were developed for ten major species in the inland Northwest. The Wykoff function in the Stand Prognosis Model and the Lundqvist function were fit to data which included many large-sized trees. The two models fit the data equally well for all species. Prediction results using the existing Prognosis equation, the refitted Wykoff function, and the Lundqvist function showed that the three models predicted similar heights for trees of small diameter. However, both the refitted Wykoff function and the Lundqvist function predicted larger tree heights for trees with dbh greater than 20 in. for most species. The estimated heights for tree diameters of 70 or 80 in. from the Lundqvist function were closer to the observed 'asymptotic' tree heights than the other two. The Lundqvist function showed lower prediction errors for the validation data for the majority of the tree species, especially for large-sized trees.
Lecture given jointly by Steven Foster and Meredith Little. Opening remarks by Edwin E. Krumpe principal scientist for wilderness management in the Wilderness Research Center, professor in the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism. Introduction by John C. Hendee director of the University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center. The lecture begins by introducing the School of Lost Borders, a wilderness retreat and vision quest program. The lecturer describes the need for rites of passage into adulthood in today's culture and society. In the past the context of wilderness provided a pathway into adulthood and while that still persists today there is no longer any community to witness and respect that transition. The rites of passage that the school offers draw from many different cultural traditions but they all have the same three stages: severance, threshold, and incorporation. The lecturers discus the role of the wilderness guide in these stages, defining them as midwives who assist the vision quest participants to give birth to themselves. A training process that the guides use called 'mirroring' is described, a kind of therapy that focuses on the positive aspect of the stories rather than the problems. This theraputic process is based on 'The Four Shields', a world view based on the four seasons correlating with a period of life. Summer and Fall are described as childhood and initiation, Winter and Spring as adulthood and rebirth. The vision of these rites of passage are often very tangible rather than supernatural and the true power of the visions come from their enactment by the participant after the vision quest is over and they have returned to their regular lives. The Four Shields approach is really about balance and harmony between these stages of life and mentalities. A short video is shown. The lecture concludes with a question and answer session, some of which are included in the transcript. A list of suggested reading is given. A list of past lecturers and the titles of their lectures are listed.

1997
The design and methods for an experiment conducted by the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative with the following objective: Establish experimental areas to study the effects of mineral nutrition on tree health and vigor within seedling establishment stands on different mineralogy ('good and bad') of underlying rock.
Initial efforts of the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (IFTNC) concentrated on studying the effect of nitrogen fertilization on Douglas-fir (Psuedotsuga menziesii var. glauca) growing in the inland Northwest (eastern Oregon, Eastern Washington, Idaho, and western Montana). The lFTNC established ninety-four experimental sites in managed, second growth Douglas-fir stands. This paper presents results showing that tree growth response to N fertilization and tree mortality rates are significantly influenced by the underlying rocks on which the stand is growing.
Nearly all forest sites in the Inland Northwest are nutrient deficient, usually for nitrogen (N) but sometimes other nutrients as well. Furthermore, a single nutrient limitation cannot always be perceived and there is evidence that shows conifer growth and health may strongly depend on the interaction and availability of several mineral nutrients. In this paper, results are presented from two Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (IFTNC) studies designed to investigate Inland Northwest Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine seedling nutrition as inftuenced by various nutrient treatments. Results from IFTNC studies have shown that N alone or in conjunction with other mineral nutrient treatments significantly altered foliar nutrient levels, growth rates and carbon allocation patterns in Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine seedlings. As expected, growth was significantly higher for seedlings receiving N amendments than for those seedlings receiving low or no N in the treatment mix. Douglas-fir seedling allocation to needles was the same between the high and low N treatments, but allocation to roots increased while allocation to stem decreased under low N supply. The effects of the N and potassium (K) treatments on Douglas-fir seedling root production of soluble sugar, starch, phenolic and protein-precipitable tannin were observed in this study. Root storage compounds such as starch were reduced in Douglas-fir seedlings receiving the high N treatments, whereas secondaiy defensive compounds like phenolics and tannins were reduced in plants receiving low K treatments. Caliper growth in ponderosa pine seedlings grown under different multi-nutrient treatments showed significant differences between application rates, fertilizer release rates, and time of sampling. Seedlings receiving the 15 gram multi-nutrient treatment tended to show higher caliper growth response than seedlings receiving either the 5 or 30 gram treatments. Overall, caliper response after bud set in the fall tended to be higher for those seedlings receiving the medium release rate fertilizer treatment compared to those receiving the slow or fast release rate fertilizers.

1998
Nutrient availability has long been recognized as a limiting factor to plant growth (Luxmoore et al. 1993). In the Pacific Northwest, of the elements needed for tree growth, nitrogen is the only one that is consistently deficient in the forests of the Northwest (Cole, et al., 1992). Foliage samples collected from 90 fertilizer trials in Douglas-fir scattered across eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, Idaho and western Montana showed nitrogen concentrations of unfertilized trees to be quite low throughout the area (Mika and Moore, 1990). Foliar analysis has also shown severe to very severe nitrogen deficiencies to be common in lodgepole pine stands throughout the interior of British Columbia (Ballard, 1986) and in many ponderosa pine (Powers et al. 1988) and true fir (Powers, 1981) stands in California and Oregon. No other nutrients have been found generally lacking over such large areas and wide range of conditions. Since early work by the College of Forestry, University of Washington, in the1950's, wide-scale testing with nitrogen has been used to develop response predictions. Currently, however, most information on application rates has been based on broadcast application of soluble nitrogen sources. Very little or no information is available on effects of slow release sources on growth of ponderosa pine, especially using a dibble technique. Therefore, the objectives of this study are: 1) to determine the optimum rate of a complete fertilizer to assure rapid tree establishment and early development during the first four years following outplanting; 2) to evaluate the effects of different nutrient release characteristics on plant performance, especially on the root system and 3) to determine correlation of nutrient concentrations from tissue analysis with nutrient application rate and seedling growth rates. The experiment, if successful, will provide a practically economic and efficient fertilization method to ensure rapid growth and a higher nutrient uptake rates of after planting ponderosa pine.
This paper summarizes results from two studies evaluating nutrient uptake in mixed conifer stands following fertilization with three nutrient combinations. The studies were conducted in northeastern Oregon and in central Washington by the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (lFTNC) in cooperation with the Umatilla and Okanogan National Forests. Four tree species were evaluated for nutrient uptake: Pseudotsuga menzeisii (Douglas-fir), Abies grandis (grand fir). Pinus eontona (lodgepole pine), and Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine). The fertilization treatments were nitrogen (N), nitrogen with potassium (K), and nitrogen with sulfur (5). One intent of the research was to determine whether fertilizing these stands would help basten the rotation and bring them into production sooner by increasing growth rates and decreasing mortality rates. Another objective was to examine how various species respond to fertilization when growing together in a mixture in the same stand. Most previous fertilization trials have been conducted in relatively pure, single species stands and involved only nitrogen.
Chemical changes in roots of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. g/auca (Bessn.) Franco) seedlings were induced under optimal and deficient levels of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K). Concentrations of sugar, starch, phenolics and proteinprecipitable tannins were significantly different by treatment in the roots of four-year-old Douglas-fir seedlings under varied Nand K regimes. Root tip starch concentrations were significantly higher and sugar concentrations were lower in plants receiving the low-N treatments. Seedlings receiving the high N-low K treatment had significantly lower concentrations of phenolics and tannins and lower ratios of defensive compounds to carbohydrates than seedlings receiving the high potassium treatments. Samples taken from two locations on the root system show that concentrations of all storage and defensive compounds were substantially higher in the root collar than in the root tips. Due to lower within tissue variation, we recommend sampling at root tips to better detect treatment differences. This study shows that N levels affect starch concentrations in the roots, while K levels affect root phenolic and tannin concentrations.
Most forest soils in the Intermountain Northwest have nutrient deficiencies of some kind, especially nitrogen. Overstory conifer trees respond favorably following fertilization in the Intermountain Northwest. However, knowledge of fertilization effects on understory vegetation growth in mixed-conifer stands in the Intermountain Northwest is minimal. The effects of overstory density on understory vegetation response to fertilization in the Intermountain Northwest is also limited. Information about whether fertilization of understory vegetation causes species composition. species diversity, and wildlife habitat to change through time in mixed-conifer stands in the Intermountain Northwest is scarce. Knowledge of the long term effects of fertilization treatments on understory vegetation characteristics in the Intermountain Northwest is lacking. Fertilization may not produce statistically significant responses in understory vegetation growth until several years after application. This study is an attempt to quantify affects a short time after application and to establish monitoring plots. The IFTNC plans to use these study areas for a long-term assessment. Understory vegetation may show more response immediately after fertilization or more response several years after fertilization.
In 1985, the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (IFTNC) established 10 nitrogen (N) fertilization trials in stands dominate by Ponderosa pine. The ponderosa pine trials were located throughout northeastern Oregon and central Washington and were an expansion of IFTNC Douglas-fir N fertilization trials established in the early 1980's. The focus of these fertilization trials was to study nutrition of commercial forests in the Intermountain Northwest, with the majority of the effort on studying the effect of N fertilization on growth and survival. In addition, evidence from IFTNC Douglas-fir trials (Mika and Moore 1990) and other research from the Inland Northwest suggested that elements other than N, particularly potassium (K), may also be limiting. In 1987, IFTNC members established 6 additional ponderosa pine trials in Montana to study the effects of N and K fertilization on tree growth and survival. This report provides 12 year (1985 sites) and 10 year (1987 sites) final response results for the ponderosa pine fertilization sites.
In the fall of 1990, the IFTNC established six fertilization study trials in the Klickitat area of south central Washington. Three IFTNC members were involved in the establishment ofthese study trails. Cooperative members include: Champion Timberlands, Longview Fibre and Washington Dept. ofNatural Resources. The original fertilization trails were designed to study the effects ofnitrogen (N) and potassium (1K) fertilization on tree growth and survival. Tree fertilization response (basal area and cubic volume response over that ofthe controls) was monitored every two years and response results were summarized. Six-year results showed that periodic volume growth response for each two-year period since fertilization gradually decreased over time. However, significant responses were seen on individual sites by parent material types. Examination ofthe six-year results and re-evaluation oftree nutritional needs in this area prompted the cooperators to further investigate fertilization response in the Klickitat area with a refertilization of the existing 1990 installations.
In 1985, the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (IFTNC) established 10 nitrogen (N) fertilization trials in stands dominated by ponderosa pine. The ponderosa pine trials were located throughout northeastern Oregon and central Washington and were an expansion of IFTNC Douglas-fir N fertilization trials established in the early 1980's. The focus of these fertilization trials was to study nutrition of commercial forests in the Intermountain Northwest, with the majority of the effort on studying the effect of N fertilization on growth and survival. In addition, evidence from IFTNC Douglas-fir trials (Mika and Moore 1990) and other research from the Inland Northwest suggested that elements other than N, particularly potassium (K), may also be limiting. In 1987, IFTNC members established 6 additional ponderosa pine trials in Montana to study the effects of N and K fertilization on tree growth and survival. This report provides 12 year (1985 sites) and 10 year (1987 sites) final response results for the ponderosa pine fertilization sites.

1999
The primary objective of this study is to demonstrate the effects of multiple nutrient fertilizer application on improving plantation health and productivity. Multi-nutrient fertilization was successful in increasing nitrogen, potassium, sulfur and boron nutrient content in the ponderosa pine foliage. However, only nitrogen and potassium expressed concentrations above reported critical levels, while sulfur and boron foliar levels were deficient. On average, two-year basal area growth was 9.8% higher on the multi-nutrient treatment than on the control.
Three controlled-release fertilizers (fast release (FR), moderate release (MR) and slow release (SR) were incorporated in the growing media at rates of 0.8, 1.6 or 3.2 grams per seedling at the time of sowing as supplements to nursery supplied soluble fertilizer. Effects on seedling biomass allocation of the '160/90' container ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug. ex Laws) were evaluated in the field. Two years after outplanting, fertilization significantly increased foliage, stem, root and total biomass of ponderosa pine seedlings, but did not change foliage, stem and root dry weight ratios and shoot/root ratios. Fertilization changed height/caliper ratios of ponderosa pine seedlings. For small calipers (>20mm), fertilized seedlings were taller than unfertilized seedlings of the same caliper; however, for larger calipers (>20 mm), fertilized seedlings were shorter than unfertilized seedlings of the same caliper. Caliper was more strongly related to total and component biomass of ponderosa pine than was height. The strong association between caliper and biomass provides an efficient way to measure fertilizer treatment effects on biomass for future studies.
This paper describes root biochemical characteristics of naturally regenerated Douglas-fir trees growing on a wide variety of sites in the inland Northwest. Roots of trees growing on dry, warm Douglas-fir habitat series had significantly greater concentrations of sugar and tannins, higher tannin/suagar ratios, and significantly lower phenolic concentrations and phenolic/sugar ratios than the roots of Douglas-fir trees growing on grand fir habitat series or western red cedar habitat series. Possible links between Douglas-fir root biochemical characteristics and susceptibility to root disease, particularly Armillaria, and tree resistance to drought are discussed.
Foliar nutrient analysis results and laboratory analysis protocol were compared for three laboratories used by the IFTNC. Analysis of variance showed significant differences between laboratories for the same sample tissue. In addition, even though all three laboratories use ICP instrumentation, protocol techniques for preparing the foliage samples for analysis differ between laboratories. Various standards and internal checks are used routinely by each laboratory. It appears that the techniques used to digest and prepare the foliage samples are the main sources of variation between laboratories.
Vector analysis is a foliar graphical technique used to compare plant growth, nutrient concentrations and nutrient content. It is a useful diagnostic tool to determine nutritional status of trees in response to silvicultural prescriptions such as forest fertilization. Vector analysis has been used over the past few decades to examine plant responses to various treatments. More recently, the IFTNC has used foliar vector analysis to interpret experimental forest nutrient status and tree growth response. IFTNC staff, graduate students, and associates developed Vector Excell. Vector Excell was written within Microsoft Excel Visual Basic Editor and runs in a PC (IBM compatible) environment. This paper covers Vector Excell installation, data entry and operation. Foliar data collection and foliar vector interpretation is the responsibility of the user and not the IFTNC, although the IFTNC can serve as advisees on these matters. Appendices A, B and C contain foliage collection and vector interpretation materials and vector analysis references, respectively.
An individual tree mortality model for nitrogen fertilized Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. gIauca (Beissn.) Franco) stands was developed using data from permanent research plots located throughout the inland Northwest. The proposed linear logistic model included the following independent variables: a set of dummy variables for the 5 rock types, a set of dummy variables for the 3 nitrogen fertilizer treatments, diameter at breast height, crown ratio, number of trees per hectare, and relative rank of tree size, defined by basal area in larger trees over basal area per ha. The results show that nitrogen fertilization and rock type significantly affect individual tree mortality. Trees growing on granitic and meta-sedimentary rocks exhibited greater probabilities of mortality than did those growing on other rocks. The probabilities of mortality for trees growing on sedimentary rocks were very low. The probabilities of tree monality increased with increasing nitrogen fertilizer application rates. Finally, nitrogen fertilization response ratios for annual probability of tree mortality were estimated based on the mortality model. The response ratios were nearly constant (about 1.54) across a range of tree diameters for all rock types with the 224 kg N treatment. The response ratios were also nearly constant (about 2.50) across a range of tree diameters for all rock types with the 448 kg N treatment.
Individual tree basal area increment models for nitrogen fertilized stands were developed using data from permanent research plots located throughout the Inland Northwest. Results show that tree size, stand density, habitat type, and rock type significantly interact to affect individual tree basal area growth response to nitrogen fertilization. Small trees with high basal area in larger trees growing on moist habitat types and all rock types, except meta-sedimentary, exhibited greater relative response than larger trees with low basal area in larger trees growing in the same stand. Further, small trees with high basal area in larger trees growing on dry sites or on meta-sedimentary rocks showed less relative response than larger trees with low basal area in larger trees. Incorporating the new equations into individual tree growth and yield simulators would provide better representation of N fertilization response differences within a stand.
This study quantified the effects of operational multi-nutrient fertilization on understory shrub, forb, and grass production in forests of eastern Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The greatest understory response to fertilization occurred in low density overstory stands. One additional cattle Animal Unit Month (AUM) can be produced per acre, one year following treatment, in stands with overstory basal area less than 50 ft.2/ac. One additional white-tailed deer equivalent AUM can be produced in stands with less than 75 ft.2/ac. overstory basal area. Multi-nutrient fertilization is an effective treatment for increasing understory production and generally improving wildlife habitat and rangeland yield in addition to tree overstory growth and yield.
The results of two studies evaluating nutrient uptake in mixed-conifer stands following fertilization are reported. The four species examined were Douglas-fir, grand fir, lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine. The fertilization treatments were 224 kg ha-1 nitrogen, 224 kg ha-1 nitrogen plus 112 kg ha-1 sulfur, and 224 kg ha-1 nitrogen plus 190.4 kg ha-1 potassium. Foliar nutrient concentrations, contents and ratios were analyzed, as well as four-year volume response. Douglas-fir showed both N and S deficiencies in control foliage samples, and produced significant growth response to the N + S treatment, but not to the N-alone treatment. Grand fir also showed foliar N and S deficiencies, but produced significant growth response to both N and N + S fertilization. This suggests that grand fir was better able to utilize N than Douglas-fir even under S-limiting conditions. Lodgepole pine showed deficient foliar N and S concentrations, and produced significant volume responses to N and N + K fertilization. Lodgepole volume response to N + S fertilization was highly variable, and appeared to be site specific. Ponderosa pine did not show nutrient deficiencies for N or K, and did not respond significantly in either foliar K or S levels or in growth to N, N + K or N + S fertilization. This suggests that nutrient deficiency may not have been a factor limiting foliar nutrient response and growth for ponderosa pine.
Lecture given jointly by Dr. Larry Dean Olsen, founder of Anasazi Foundation, and Ezekiel Sanchez, President and CEO of Anasazi Foundation. Opening remarks by Edwin E. Krumpe, principal scientist for Wilderness Management in the Wilderness Research Center and professor in the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism. Introduction by John C. Hendee, director of the University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center. The lecture opens with an illustration of man's ability to survive in the face of hardship. The lecture also gives examples of wilderness shaping the lives of many influential people and cultures throughout the centuries. The ANASAZI program is given a brief description and it's contrast to other therapies is pointed out.

2000
Carbon compound concentrations in plant tissues depend on the environment in which plants grow. However, little is known about how these concentrations vary across a range of forest environmental conditions. Our study examined root tissue (phloem, cambium, phellum, and phelloderm) collected from naturally regenerated mature Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca [Bessn.] Franco) trees in eight stands on three habitat type series encompassing a range of temperature and moisture conditions. The objective was to determine root chemical composition (sugar, starch, phenol, and tannin) differences among the habitat types. Douglas-fir roots collected from dry, warm Douglas fir habitat types had sugar concentrations of 4% compared to 3% for roots from cool, moist habitat types. Root samples collected from Douglas-fir habitat types showed tannin concentrations about double those from grand fir or western redcedar habitat types. Phenol/tannin ratios for the cool, moist habitat types were about double those from warm, dry Douglas-fir habitat types. Roots sampled from western redcedar habitat types had phenol concentrations and phenol/sugar ratios more than 50% higher than those from Douglas-fir and grand fir habitat types. We speculate that root chemistry of Douglas-fir growing on Douglas-fir habitat types could make them more drought resistant but less disease resistant, while Douglas-fir growing on western redcedar types would be less drought resistant but more disease resistant. Douglas-fir growing on warm, dry sites allocated more carbon to tannin production and less to phenols.
Results from this study show foliar nutrient deficiencies and multi-nutrient fertilization response for ponderosa pine, grand fir and Douglas-fir over a period of four consecutive growing seasons. Generally, through critical level or vector foliar diagnosis, N, S, B, Cu and possibly Mo were identified as being deficient for all species in this study. Additionally, Douglas-fir on the Noregaard site showed foliar K deficiency response. Distinct foliar nutrient response patterns were observed for those "strong responding" nutrients, particularly N and B where foliar response increased, peaked then declined in magnitude relative to the control as the year since fertilization increased. Delayed nutrient response may have been to spring fertilizer application not having manifested itself in time to show strong nutrient response one growing season after fertilization. Similar to foliar nutrient response, foliar needle weight growth increased, peaked then declined in magnitude relative to the control as the year since fertilization increased. Additionally, needle weight response was delayed due to spring fertilization. Needle weight response was significant for ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir but not for grand fir. Overall, four-year cubic foot volume response was significantly higher on the multi-nutrient treatment than the controls, with relative gross cubic foot volume response for both sites combined showing a 26.9% increase. Individual site response revealed that much of the combined relative cubic foot volume response was expressed on the Clear Creek site, which showed a 34% increase over the controls while the Noregaard site only showed a 3.9% increase. Periodic relative gross basal area response for both sites combined was greater in the first two-year period (26.9%) than the second two-year period (11.1%). Periodic relative basal area response for the Clear Creek unit was 32% the first two-year period and 23% the second two-year period while the Noregaard site response was 18.6% the first period and -6.5% the second.
Six fertilization study sites located in the Klickitat region of south-central Washington were established and fertilized in 1990 and then re-fertilized in 1998. Six-year plot response by treatment from the initial fertilization was analyzed and presented in 1997. Two-year re-fertilization plot response by treatment is presented here in short summary form with a final report to follow after further analysis. A brief introduction with site characteristics (Table1), treatments (Table 2) plot response by treatment tables (Tables 3-6) and vector analysis interpretation and diagnosis (Figures 1) follow this summary. Two-years after re-fertilization the average gross basal area response overall sites combined was - 3.7%, -3.7% and 0.1% for N, N+S and N+S+Micro applications, respectively (Table 3). In comparison, overall six-year volume response reported by Garrison (1997) was positive but was also poor with 10.3% and 8.4% response on the N and N+K applications, respectively (Table 4). Comparison of geologic parent materials underlying the sites showed that four installations occur on Wanapum basalt, one on Grande Ronde basalt and one on landslide olivine basalt. The Wanapum basalt and olivine basalt responded poorly but the single installation which occurred on a Grande Ronde basalt responded very well, with 30.7%, 36.0% and a significant (p < 0.10) 61.3% for N, N+S and N+S+Micro applications, respectively (Table 5). Similarly, six-year volume response also showed this pattern with sites on Wanapum and olivine basalt responding poorly (data not shown, Garrison et al, 1997) while Grande Ronde basalt response was good with 35.7% and 30% for the N and N+K applications (Table 6). It appears that all the significant (p < 0.10) positive re-fertilization effect was due to the growth response of the Grande Ronde basalt. Notably, the addition of micro nutrients in the 1998 re-fertilization increased response over the N+S treatment by 25.3%. Notably, other IFTNC sites located on Grande Ronde and Wanapum parent materials show similar response trends. Grande Ronde sites almost always respond well to fertilization while Wanapum sites almost always respond poorly to fertilization. Vector analysis of foliar response (Shaw and Moore, 1999) also diagnosed Grande Ronde basalt as the best responder to fertilization (Figure 1). Furthermore, vector analysis diagnosed good foliar response for Wanapum and olivine basalts, however, this good foliar response did not translate into good two-year basal area growth response for these two rock types. Perhaps nutrients other than those that were applied in the fertilizer mix were deficient and in-turn reduced response on the Wanapum and olivine basalts. For example, vector analysis identified possible Ca deficiencies for olivine basalt and P deficiencies for Wanapum basalt (Figure 1). Further testing needs to be done to determine the validity of Ca and P deficiencies or other possible growth reducing site factors. Many "site induced" confounding factors have complicated the results given in this report. In response, additional analysis is now being performed and will be presented in a final report.
Historically, the practice of silviculture has focussed on controlling the composition, quantity, and structure of forest vegetation and the maintenance of site quality. As forest plantations have become important sources of fiber, fuel, and structural material, this custodial role has given way to active intervention to improve both plant and soil resources. Forest managers are finally recognizing that intensive plantation silviculture is like agronomy; both the plant and the soil need to be actively managed to optimize production. Silvicultural treatments including vegetation control and fertilization can dramatically effect site resource availability and the crop trees' ability to acquire and utilize these resources. The key to optimizing production is to use the best genetic material available and to provide resources in quantities sufficient to allow the trees' genetic potential to be realized. Effective manipulation of the genetic and site resources requires an understanding of what resources limit forest production, how these resources are affected by silvicultural treatment, and how crop trees may differ in their ability to acquire and utilize these resources. Fortunately, our understanding of the physiological and ecological processes regulating forest production has greatly increased during the last decade. It is now generally accepted that much of the variation in wood production can be accounted for by variation in light interception. (Cannell 1989, Landsberg and Gower 1997, Linder 1987). Light interception is principally a function of the amount of leaf area and the duration of leaf area display. Empirical data from field studies with several conifer and broad-leaved species have shown that leaf area and consequently wood production are below optimum levels (Figure 1, Albaugh et al. 1998, Allen and Albaugh 1999, Benson et al. 1992, Colbert et al. 1990, Pereira et al. 1994, Snowdon and Benson 1992, Vose and Allen 1988). Low nutrient availability is a principal factor causing suboptimal levels of leaf area in many temperate humid areas (Albaugh et al 1998, Colbert et al. 1990). Low soil water availability and high vapor pressure deficits have also been shown to adversely affect leaf area in areas with growing season water deficits (Benson et al. 1992, Hennessey et al. 1992, Pereira et al. 1994). The variation in production per unit of leaf area (referred to as growth or leaf area efficiency) can also contribute to the variation in production. Growth efficiency can vary due to differences in photosynthetic efficiency, respiration, and partitioning to various biomass components. Improved nutrient and water availability has been shown to increase photosynthetic efficiency (Linder 1987) and aboveground productivity proportionally more than belowground productivity in stand-level studies (Albaugh et al. 1998, Allen and Albaugh 1999, Gower et al. 1994).
Three controlled-release fertilizers (fast release (FR), moderate release (MR) and slow release (SR)) were incorporated in the root plug at rates of0.8, 1.6 or 3.2 grams per seedling at the time of sowing as supplements to nursery supplied soluble fertilizer. Effects on seedling growth, survival and foliar nutrient status of the '160/90' container ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug. ex Laws) were evaluated after outplanting. At the end of the second growing season, fertilized seedlings had significantly greater caliper and height than unfertilized seedlings. Fertilization significantly increased relative height growth rate, but did not significantly increase relative caliper growth rate. Most treatments had lower caliper growth rates than the controls. The differences between the 3.2 grams ofMR or SR fertilizer treatments and the controls were statistically significant. Height growth response was attributable to fertilizer doses rather than fertilizer types. The 3.2 grams of MR or SR fertilizer treatments produced significantly higher mortality (55 and 36 %, respectively) than the controls. The mortality was strongly correlated with root growth potential. Foliar N and Mo concentrations were significantly influenced by fertilization during the first growing season. During the second growing season, foliar Cu, Fe and K concentrations were found to be deficient or nearly deficient even after fertilization.
Prior to sowing seeds, three controlled-release fertilizers (fast release (FR), moderate release (MR) and slow release (SR) were incorporated into the growing media at rates of 0.8, 1.6 or 3.2 grams as supplements to nursery supplied soluble fertilizer to grow ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug. ex Laws) seedlings in the greenhouse. At lifting, the caliper, height and total dry weight of fertilized '160/90' seedlings ranged from 114 to 129%, 107 to 121% and 130 to 195% larger than those ofthe unfertilized seedlings, respectively. Needle biomass was affected more than stems or roots by the fertilization treatments. The 0.8 grams ofFR or SR fertilizer treatments significantly increased ponderosa pine seedling root growth potential (RGP) compared to the controls. Toxicity from continuous nutrient release during cold storage resulted in much lower RGP for the 3.2 grams ofMR or SR fertilizer treatments. The best dosage for caliper and height growth was 0.8 grams for FR fertilizer, 2.2 and 2.3 grams for MR fertilizer, and 1.9 and 2.0 grams for SR fertilizer, respectively. Lower application rates and shorter fertilizer release periods should be used with these small containers to prevent root damage when cold storage is required before outplanting.
Several studies have linked high phenolics:sugar ratios in the inner root bark tissue of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) to decreased susceptibility to Armillaria spp. While these studies have identified environmental factors that influence root chemistry, none have examined whether the phenolics:sugar ratio is genetically controlled. In this study, the effects of genetics and environment on Douglas-fir root bark chemistry were investigated. Significant differences in root bark chemistry of 15-yr-old Douglas-fir were detected among 20 open-pollinated families and 2 sites in northern Idaho. Family, site and the family x site interaction were significant sources of variation in the concentrations of sugar, starch, protein-precipitable tannins, and phenolics as well as in the phenolics: sugar ratio. Single-tree narrow-sense and family heritability estimates revealed that 20-24% of the variation in the phenolics:sugar ratio can be attributed to genetic differences, while around 60% of the variation in sugar concentrations can be attributed to genetic differences. Family and individual narrow-sense heritability estimates for 12-yr height growth were 0.62 and 0.54, respectively. While the correlation between height and the phenolics:sugar ratio was not significant, three families above the seventieth percentile in height growth expressed above average phenolics: sugar ratios at both sites. Should a high phenolics:sugar ratio prove effective in selecting genotypes for resistance to Armillaria infection, these results suggest that it would be possible to do so without sacrificing families with superior height growth in a tree improvement program. Gains could be made even more efficiently by selecting for low sugar concentrations.
An individual tree mortality model for nitrogen fertilized Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca [Beissn.] Franco) stands was developed using data from permanent research plots located throughout the inland Northwest. The proposed linear logistic model included the following independent variables: a dummy variable for the two habitat types, a set of dummy variables for the five rock types, a set of dummy variables for the three N fertilizer treatments, diameter at breast height, crown ratio, and crown competition factor. The results show that N fertilization, rock type, and habitat type significantly affect individual tree mortality. The probabilities of tree mortality on fertilized plots were greater than those on control plots and increased with increasing N fertilizer application rates. Trees growing on granitic and metasedimentary rocks had lower foliar potassium concentration and exhibited greater probabilities of mortality than did those growing on other rocks. The probabilities of mortality for trees growing on sedimentary rocks were very low. Moist sites had lower soil fertility and produced higher mortality rates than dry sites. Furthermore, the N fertilization response ratio, defined as the annual mortality probability of a fertilized tree over the annual mortality probability of a unfertilized tree with identical tree and stand characteristics, was estimated based on the mortality model. The response ratios were nearly constant (about 1.4) across a range of tree diameters for all rock types with the 224 kg N treatment. The response ratios were also nearly constant (about 2.1) across a range of tree diameters for all rock types with the 448 kg N treatment. Finally, the mortality prediction model passed a validation test on independent data not used in model development.
Individual tree basal area increment models for nitrogen fertilized stands were developed using data from permanent research plots located throughout the Inland Northwest. Results show that tree size, stand density, habitat type, and rock type significantly interact to affect individual tree basal area growth response to nitrogen fertilization. Suppressed trees growing on moist habitat types and all rock types, except metasedimentary, exhibited greater relative response than did dominant or codominant trees growing in the same stand. However, suppressed trees growing on dry sites or on soils derived from granite rocks did not show different relative response than dominant or codominant trees growing in the same stand. This study quantitatively demonstrates that individual tree competitive relationships are significantly affected by rock type. Rock types proved to be useful in representing broad differences in a site's nutrient environment. Incorporating the new equations into individual tree growth and yield simulators would provide better representation of N fertilization response differences within a stand.
This study examined multi-nutrient fertilization effects on understory vegetation diversity at eight forested locations in the inland Northwest. Percent canopy covered by understory plant species of three growth forms (shrubs, forbs, grasses) and total understory were determined over a two year period following treatment. Two diversity indices (Shannon-Wiener index and Simpson's index) were used to quantify multi-nutrient fertilization effects on understory plant diversity. Multi-nutrient fertilization prescribed to increase overstory tree growth did not typically reduce understory vegetation diversity, rather diversity increased following fertilization on some sites. Understory composition at the time of treatment greatly determined fertilizalion effects on diversiry as follows: 1) if most species in the plant community responded relatively the same after treatment then diversity was unchanged even though total biomass increase may have been large; 2) if a highly responsive species was abundant prior to treatment. then diversity decreased following fertilization; and 3) if a highly responsive species was relatively rare prior to treatment, then diversity increased following fertilization. Multi-nutrient forest fertilization generally did not affect understory plant diversity, but where changes did occur diversity increases were more common than decreases.
Eight study sites were established in 1991 on the Umatilla National Forest to study forest growth response to nitrogen and nitrogen-sulfur fertilization. The eight sites corresponded to four locations, Pomeroy, Pendleton, Ukiah and Heppner, which were arrayed in a linear fashion from northeast to southwest across the Forest. While this location effect was confounded with many other factors, it was an important blocking factor for analyses of fertilization growth response. However, it was difficult to identify which location factors influenced fertilization response. The more mature stands at Pomeroy and Pendleton were analyzed together, while the Ukiah and Heppner sites were analyzed separately. Overall, while both N and N+S showed positive growth responses, N+S provided the greatest eight-year volume response. This response was greatest for the mature stands at the Pomeroy and Pendleton study sites. A positive N+S response did occur at Heppner, but was only detectable in analysis of relative volume response. Ukiah did not show a significant fertilization response. Both Heppner and Ukiah were difficult to analyze and understand due to problems inherent in their small tree sizes and open-grown conditions, as well as to wide variation in initial conditions. Two-year periodic volume growth was also calculated and displayed for each of the four locations. Periodic fertilizer responses were strongest during the first two to six years of the study, and fertilizer effect has diminished to the point of being almost indiscernible during the most recent two-year period.
Prior to sowing seeds, three controlled-release fertilizers (fast release (FR), moderate release (MR) and slow release (SR)) were incorporated in the growing media at rates of 0.8, 1.6 or 3.2 grams per seedling as supplements to nursery supplied soluble fertilizer. Effects on seedling foliar and root nutrient status of'160/90' container ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug. ex Laws) in the greenhouse were evaluated using graphical vector analysis. Treatment FR-0.8 produced the largest increase in foliage mass (238%) and root mass (169%) of all treatments while maintaining a nearly 'steady-state' condition. The 'steady-state' vectors resulting from treatment FR-0.8 indicate that nutrients were supplied in sufficient amounts to support the higher growth rates and increased biomass accumulation compared to the controls since nutrient contents increased in proportion to biomass. Some slow release fertilizers applied at higher rates, when combined with the existing nursery fertilization schedules, produced seedlings with poor nutritional balance in both foliage and roots. These treatments were readily detected with nutrient vector analysis and the technique proved to be effective in assisting the development of nursery fertilization regimes.

2001
This document was prepared as a guideline for foresters to use in determining appropriate nutrient management strategies for forest stands on various rock types in north Idaho and portions of northeastern Washington. The guidelines proposed in this document are based on both observational and experimental evidence compiled by the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (IFTNC) since its inception in 1980. Nine digital geologic maps covering most of north Idaho and portions of northeastern Washington were compiled for this report. A location map showing the maps used in this compilation is shown in Appendix A. Four of these maps, the Headquarters, Missoula West, Kookia and Hamilton 1:100000 quadrangles, are in preliminary form. Expect the map units to change over time. Stands in these areas MUST be field checked for rock type before proceeding with nutrient management decisions. A listing of all rock units from each of the nine maps was extracted, for a total of approximately 435 rock units. Each of these rock units was assigned to one of 59 lithology groups, labeled as 'LITH_GRP' A complete listing of rock units by map is shown in Appendix D, along with a brief description and the corresponding lithology grouping. Each rock unit was also assigned to one of four broad categories, labeled 'CATEGORY.' These four categories include extrusive/ basaltic rocks, intrusive/ granitic rocks, metamorphic rocks, and mixed rocks. The following section of the report discusses nutrient management strategies for each rock category. Within each category, the guidelines are further subdivided based on the lithology groupings. These guidelines are based on the current state of knowledge regarding rocks and forest growth. We fully expect these guidelines to be further refined with additional experience and experimentation. Caveats: Geology maps are a useful tool in forest management. However, the user must be aware that geology maps were not developed for use at the forest stand level. We have found the updated north Idaho geology maps to be very good for giving a general idea of the rocks likely to be found in a particular area, and often the maps are precise to the stand level. Nonetheless, foresters must always verify the rock type in the field before considering fertilization options. The information included in this report is intended only to provide general guidelines to be considered in the formulation of silvicultural prescriptions.
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is a native conifer species which is widely distributed throughout the inland northwest of the United States. This species occurs across a variety of site conditions, and may grow in pure stands or in combination with other tree species common to the area. Douglas-fir is one of the most important timber-producing species in the region. A number of insects and diseases affect Douglas-fir stands in the region. Most are endemic to the area and experience natural cycles of buildup and decline. During the late 1990's, an endemic insect known as the Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins) began to increase to epidemic proportions throughout much of northern Idaho and northeastern Washington. This beetle burrows into the tree's bark and lays eggs. The adults and larvae then feed on the phloem, usually girdling and killing the tree (Hagle et al. 1987). During 1996 and 1997, an average of 51 ha/yr (125 ac) were affected by new Douglas-fir beetle attacks. By 1998 approximately 479 ha (1185 ac) were affected, and in 1999, aerial surveys indicated that 31,093 ha (76,830 ac) were impacted. These outbreaks caused great concern, due largely to the increased fire danger caused by huge areas of dead timber. Furthermore, as populations built, the beetles were able to spread further and faster than normal, affecting both public and private timberland in the region. The Panhandle National Forests initiated emergency salvage logging operations in the region, both to reduce fire risk and to reduce the risk of beetles spreading to adjacent private lands. Recent findings in forest health research have indicated that the bedrock geology underlying forest stands may play an important role in forest nutrition, and consequently may affect tree susceptibility to insects and disease. While direct relationships between rocks and forest stand health have not yet been established, we believe that such relationships exist. In the current study, Forest Service workers in north Idaho and northeastern Washington noted a tendency for Douglas-fir beetle outbreaks to occur more frequently on certain rock types than others, even though adjacent stands on other rock types seemed otherwise very similar. This analysis utilizes Forest Service data on forest vegetative cover and Douglas-fir beetle distribution in combination with geologic data to assess whether beetles favored stands on certain rock types.

2002
This study quantified the effects of operational multinutrient fertilization on understory shrub, forb, and grass production in inland Northwest forests. Understory vegetation annual production increased at some sites while other sites showed no change or decreases following fertilizer treatments. The greatest understory response to fertilization occurred in low density, shade-intolerant, overstory-dominated stands. Understory vegetation response was lower under overstories dominated by more shade-tolerant conifers. Multinutrient fertilization produced increases in annual understory production of up to 2,400 lb/ac for combined understory growth forms over the entire growing season.
Four controlled-release fertilizers (fast release [FR], moderate release [MR], slow release [SR] and slow release with micronutrients extended [ME]) were applied, at rates of 0, 5, 15 and 30 g/seedling, to ponderosa pine seedlings (Pinus ponderosa Doug. ex Laws) immediately after planting. Compared to the controls, the 5 and15 g/seedling of FR or ME fertilizer produced significantly greater caliper growth and the 5 and 15 g/seedling of ME fertilizer and 15 and 30 g of FR fertilizer produced significantly greater height growth after 3 yr. Mortality occurred mainly during the first growing season and varied substantially with fertilizer types and dosage. High dosage (30 g/seedling) generally caused more mortality than other dosage levels. Seventy-eight, 54, 51, and 36% of total nutrients had been released from the FR, MR, SR and ME products, respectively, by late August of the first growing season. Early in the second growing season, the FR product had released 98% of its total nutrients, and the MR, SR, and ME products had released over 90% of their nutrients. The best fertilizer treatment, 15 g of the ME product, produced a 21% diameter increase and a 30% height increase 3 yr after treatment. The relative magnitude of the growth responses is similar to those observed from other adjacent placement, controlled-release, seedling fertilization studies in the Northwest.
Three controlled-release fertilizers (fast release [FR], moderate release [MR], and slow release [SR]) were incorporated in the root plug at rates of 0.8, 1.6, or 3.2 g/seedling at the time of sowing as supplements to nursery supplied soluble fertilizer. Effects on seedling growth, survival, and foliar nutrient status of the "160/90" container ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) were evaluated after outplanting. At the end of the second growing season, fertilized seedlings had significantly greater diameter and height than unfertilized seedlings. The 3.2 g of MR or SR fertilizer treatments produced significantly higher mortality (55 and 36%, respectively) than the controls. The fast release fertilizer included at a rate of 0.8 g in each seedling's container was the preferred treatment since it produced good survival and seedling growth response. A 2-yr growth response of about 25% was similar to that observed in a nearby study using adjacent placement of controlled-release fertilizer after planting ponderosa pine seedlings.
Several studies have linked high phenolics/sugar ratios in the inner root bark tissue of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) to decreased susceptibility to Armillaria spp. While these studies have identified environmental factors that influence root chemistry, none have examined whether the phenolics/sugar ratio is genetically controlled. In this study, we investigated the effects of genetics and environment on the root bark chemistry of 20 families of 15-year-old Douglas-fir planted in two sites in northern Idaho. Only sugar concentrations varied significantly among families, but site was a significant source of variation for phenolics and the phenolics/sugar ratio. Family x site interactions were significant for the concentrations of all measured root bark compounds as well as for the phenolics/sugar ratio. Phenotypic correlations between height and the phenolics/sugar ratio and between height and sugar concentrations were not significant. However, families with superior height growth and below-average sugar concentrations could be found at both sites. Should a high phenolics/sugar ratio prove effective in selecting genotypes for resistance to Armillaria infection, these results suggest that gains could be made more efficiently by selecting for low sugar concentrations.

2003
The nutrient balance of streams and adjacent riparian ecosystems may have been modified by the elimination of anadromous fish runs and perhaps by forest fertilization. To better understand nitrogen dynamics within stream and riparian ecosystems, and the nitrogen transfer between them, we fertilized two streams and their adjacent riparian corridors in central Idaho. On each stream two nitrogen doses were applied to a swathe approximately 35 m wide centered on the stream. The fertilizer N was enriched in 15N to 18%. This enrichment is light relative to many previous labeling studies, yet sufficient to yield a traceable signal in riparian and stream biota. This paper reports pre-treatment differences in ?15N and the first-year N response to fertilizer within the riparian woody plant community. Future manuscripts will describe the transfer of allochthonous litter N to the stream and its subsequent processing by stream biota. Pre-treatment ?15N differed between the two creeks (p = 0.00016), possibly due to residual salmon nitrogen on one of the creeks. Pre-treatment ?15N of current-year needles was enriched compared to leaf litter, which was in turn enriched compared to needles aged 4 years and older. This leads us to conclude that fractionation due to retranslocation occurs in two phases. The first, which optimizes allocation of N in younger needle age classes, is distinctly different from the second, which conserves N prior to abscission. The ?15N difference between creeks was eliminated by the fertilization (p = 0.42). In the two dominant conifer species, Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii, most fertilizer N was found in the current-year foliage; little was found in older needles and none was detected in litter (p = 0.53). In the only N-fixing shrub species, Alnus incana, little fertilizer N was detected (mean percent N derived from fertilizer (%Ndff) 5.0 ± 1.6% (se)). Far more fertilizer N was taken up by other deciduous shrubs (mean %Ndff = 33.9 ± 4.5%). Fertilizer N made up 25 (± 4.2%) of the N in deciduous shrub litter. These results demonstrate the importance of pre-treatment measurements, the feasibility of light labeling with 15N, and the potential influence of riparian plant species composition on stream nutrient dynamics via allochthonous leaf litter inputs.
Landscape-level geographic analysis was used to examine the occurrence of Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in association with geology (rock type) and forest stand types on the Panhandle National Forests of northern Idaho and northeastern Washington from 1996 to 1999. Beetle infestations occurred most often in mature stands comprised primarily of trees 23 cm in diameter at breast height ( 1.4 m), in habitat types likely to contain Douglas-fir. Douglas-fir stands growing on Prichard and lower Wallace formation metasedimentary rocks and intrusive dikes and sills were signicantly more likely than Douglas-fir stands growing on other rock types to harbor beetle populations during nonoutbreak years early in the study period. By 1999 (when outbreak populations of Douglas-fir beetle were present), beetle infestations occurred across all rock types at rates proportional to the amount ofstand area on those rocks, indicating a decrease in infestation rates for stands on particular rock types when beetle populations were large. Although the biological mechanisms influencing beetle preferences were not examined, information derived in this study could be useful in developing quantitative hazard-rating models for Douglas-fir beetle, and, subsequently, in designing silvicultural practices to reduce the amount of beetle-susceptible Douglas-fir stands on particular rock types.
The Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative (IFTNC) has been studying forest growth and health throughout the Inland Northwest since the early 1980's. Early fertilization work indicated that while nitrogen (N) was important to tree growth, other elements were important to tree physiological processes and forest health. In particular, potassium (K) appeared to alleviate tree susceptibility to fungal disease and insect attack. To further test this theory, the IFTNC designed an N-and-K fertilization-rate experiment encompassing three vegetation series (an expression of climatic regimes) and four rock types (basalt, granite, glacial deposit, and metasedimentary rock). Of the 36 sites required by the experimental design, only 31 were established because of difficulty in finding suitable, healthy and intact forest stands on metasedimentary rock types. Further examination of the effect of rock on forest growth and health was deemed necessary. With the exception of N and sometimes sulfur, all elements essential for plant growth originate from rock. Rock samples were collected from a variety of IFTNC research sites and analyzed for major and selected trace elements. While this allowed for quantitative comparison of individual elements such as K, an assessment of overall elemental availability to plants via rock weathering was also desired. A modification of Reiche's (1943) weathering potential index (WPI) was selected to evaluate rock contribution to plant-available nutrient pools. Comparison of WPI calculations across 30 IFTNC research sites showed that while basalts and granites had fairly narrow WPI ranges, metasedimentary rocks varied widely. Most of the metasedimentary rocks underlying Inland Northwest forests belong to the Belt Supergroup, which encompasses several formations and a wide variety of lithologies. In order to better categorize the geochemical variation of metasedimentary and other rocks, WPI values were calculated for a wide variety of samples collected by Idaho Geological Survey and U.S. Geological Survey personnel throughout northern Idaho. The WPI values were tabulated by lithology and formation and analyzed for differences that might help explain variation in forest nutritional status.
Prior to sowing seeds, three controlled-release fertilizers (fast release (FR), moderate release (MR) and slow release (SR)) were incorporated into the growing media at rates of 0.8, 1.6 or 3.2 g as supplements to nursery supplied soluble fertilizer to grow containerized ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug. ex Laws) seedlings in the greenhouse. At lifting, the stem diameter, height and total mass of fertilized seedlings ranged from 14 to 29%, 15 to 22%, and 39 to 100% larger than those of the unfertilized seedlings, respectively. FR provided more balanced nutrients than did MR or SR. The root growth potentials of ponderosa pine treated with 3.2 g of MR or SR were much lower than those of other treatments, indicating that a 3.2 g rate of MR or SR was too high for the seedlings. The estimated best dosages for maximum caliper and height growth were 0.8, 2.2 and 2.0 g for FR, MR and SR fertilizers, respectively.
This study looked at the effects that multi-nutrient fertilization had on understory vegetation nutrient concentrations at four conifer forested locations in the inland Northwest. Multi-nutrient fertilization of conifer stands cannot only enhance the overstory species in the inland Northwest but also the understory vegetation. Determination of nutrient concentration response to fertilization treatments can provide managers the ability to better manipulate their forests for grazing and wildlife habitat. We grouped the understory vegetation into three general life forms: forbs, grasses and grass-likes, and shrubs. Multi-nutrient fertilization had little effect on nitrogen concentration across all life forms. Potassium and sulfur generally increased in concentration. Micronutrients as a whole showed less variability in response to multi-nutrient fertilization. Boron, copper, molybdenum, and zinc generally showed increases in concentrations across all life forms.We were able to conduct analyses on a selected number of understory vegetation species. Individual species showed variability in nutrient concentration response to multi-nutrient fertilization. Wildlife habitat and grazing quality were both increased and decreased following multi-nutrient fertilization. Increases in nutrient concentrations will provide more nutritious vegetation to these animals and vice versa for decreases in concentrations.

2004
Individual tree mortality models for western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.), western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex. D. Don), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.), and western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) were developed using data from permanent research plots located throughout the inland Northwest. The proposed linear logistic models included the following independent variables: diameter at breast height, basal area in larger trees, basal area per hectare, individual tree diameter increment, and a set of dummy variables for the six bedrock types, which were granite, basalt, metasedimentary, sedimentary, mixed - glacial till, and deep deposit. The results show that rock type significantly affects individual tree mortality for western white pine, Douglas-fir, and western redcedar, while grand fir, western hemlock, and western larch were not affected. Western white pine and Douglas-fir growing on metasedimentary rocks exhibited greater mortality probabilities than on other rocks. Mortality probabilities for western hemlock were low across all rock types, including "nutrient-poor" rocks like metasedimentary types.
This article provides foliar nutrient concentration distributions and sample size calculations for Douglas-fir, grand fir, ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine. Managers can obtain foliar nutrient values from their own lands and use this information to make judgments on the relative nutrient status of forest stands. Foliage was collected from unfertilized trees at 160 different research sites of the Intermountain Forest Tree Nutrition Cooperative spanning a 16 yr period from 1982 to 1997. Douglas-fir showed the lowest variation in foliar nutrient concentrations, while grand fir was the most variable of the species sampled. Nitrogen was the least variable and Mn and Mo generally the most variable elements for all species. Grand fir had much higher foliar concentrations of K and Ca than the other species. Ponderosa pine had the highest foliar N concentrations. The pines generally have lower nutrient concentrations than the firs, with the exception of Zn. Western hemlock habitat types showed lower Douglas-fir foliar Ca, Mg, and B concentrations, but higher K concentrations than other habitat type series. Douglas-fir growing on soils derived from meta-sedimentary rocks generally had lower foliar nutrient concentrations than those growing on other rock types.

2005
The results of a series of replicated fertilization trials established throughout the Inland Northwest were reviewed for information specific to ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa P. and C. Lawson) nutrition. Ponderosa pine nitrogen (N) status was often better than the N-status of other Inland Northwest species, and therefore growth response to N fertilization was often lower than that of other species. Fertilization of ponderosa pine with N alone sometimes appeared to cause increased tree susceptibility to mortality by insect, disease and perhaps abiotic stresses. Growth and mortality response to N fertilization appeared to be related to foliage potassium (K)/N ratio in some cases. The application of K and micronutrients in combination with N may have protected the trees from N-related mortality while stimulating a growth response. Sulfur fertilization was not found to evoke a growth response in ponderosa pine, and may have increased mortality rates slightly. On certain rock types and vegetation series, ponderosa pine showed high growth response to macronutrient plus micronutrient fertilization as well as herbicide treatment. Ponderosa pine generally did not show a strong growth response to N fertilization, except on 'good' rock types on moist sites. Multinutrient (macro- plus micronutrient) fertilization combined with an herbicide treatment often provided a better response than N alone on moderate to dry sites and/or 'bad' rock types. Other species in mixed-conifer stands, particularly grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.), often showed a better growth response to fertilization than ponderosa pine. The nutritional ecology of ponderosa pine is unique among Inland forest tree species and should be considered when evaluating nutrient management options.
Forests in the Inland Northwest, USA, commonly show SO4 defi-ciency, suggesting limited SO4 availability in the soils. Regional soils, which lie between the east slopes of the northern Cascade Range and the west slopes of the northern Rocky Mountains, are influenced to varying degrees by poorly crystalline aluminosilicates and ferrihydrite, and are often classified as Andisols (Andosols). Research has shown that SO4 retention is greatly influenced by Fe and Al oxides. However, little is known of the sorption behavior exhibited by poorly crystalline andic soils of the region. In this study we investigated the mineralogy and SO4 sorption capacity of ash-influenced soils found in the Inland Northwest. Batch SO4 adsorption experiments showed that up to 40% of added SO4 was adsorbed. Furthermore, there were positive correlations between soil SO4 adsorption capacity and increasing ash influence as measured by (i) the andic soil parameter % Alo + 0.5%Feo (R2 = 0.89), (ii) P retention (R2 = 0.91), and (iii) NaF pH (R2 = 0.48). Soil pH, total organic C (TOC), and percentage of clay showed insignificant or inconclusive relationships with SO4 adsorption. Re-lease of adsorbed SO4 was significantly lower in volcanic ash-influenced soils as compared with non-ash soils, indicating a greater affinity for SO4. These results indicate that poorly crystalline aluminosilicates and Fe oxides significantly influence the amount of SO4 present in forest soil solutions. Successful nutrient management plans must rec-ognize the sorption behavior of these andic soils.
The current collection and dissemination of ESI forest plot information regarding Psuedotsuga menziesii var. glauca in north Idaho relies entirely on a method developed by P.H. Cochran. The incorporation ofthe Cochran method was introduced to NRCS Idaho from NRCS Oregon with Technical Note 190-VI. Development of yield and site index curves by Cochran was based entirely on forest stands located on the eastslopes ofthe Cascade Range and Blue Mountains ofeastern Oregon/southeast Washington. Cochran's proposed site index and yield curves were well developed and suited for the forested landscapes used in his modeling efforts. However, forest stands ofnorth Idaho and northwestern Montana are often dissimilar to their counterparts ofthe Cascades and Blue Mountains. This dissimilarity will inherently create significant predicted site index and yield error when using the Cochran method in north Idaho. Furthermore, there were very few Cochran research plots established on cedarlhemlock habitat types. Consequently, volume and site index estimates generated by the Cochran method will not reflect north Idaho productivity on these more climax habitat types. Several USDA-USFS research projects specifically developed site index and yield curves for north Idaho. Research papers INT-347 (R.A. Monserud, 1985) and INT-394 (A. Stage et aI., 1988) address these topics. Forest stands used to develop these models were located north from Grangeville to Porthill, Idaho and east to Libby, Montana. Most private and state forest management entities ofnorth Idaho utilize the Stage and Monserud models for reporting yield and site index. This creates a communication breakdown between the NRCS and other forest management entities. Standardization of yield and site index reports by the NRCS is needed not only to prevent this from occurring, but also to improve rotation estimates, carbon sequestration estimates, and other natural resource interpretations. Bringing the data up to consistent and accurate standards would improve the usability and acceptance of the NRCS Idaho soil survey product.
The collection and dissemination of ESI forest plot information regarding Psuedotsuga menziesii var. glauca in north Idaho relies entirely on a method developed by P. H. Cochran. The incorporation of the Cochran method was introduced to NRCS Idaho from NRCS Oregon with Technical Note 190-VI. Development of yield and site index curves by Cochran was based entirely on forest stands located on the east slopes of the Cascade Range and Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon / southeast Washington. Cochran's proposed site index and yield curves were well developed and suited for the forested landscapes used in his modeling efforts. However, forest stands of north Idaho and northwestern Montana are often dissimilar to their counterparts of the Cascades and Blue Mountains. This dissimilarity will inherently create significant predicted site index and yield error when using the Cochran method in north Idaho. Several USDA-USFS research projects specifically developed site index and yield curves for north Idaho. Research papers INT-347 (R.A. Monserud, 1985) and INT-394 (A. Stage et al., 1988) address these topics. Forest stands used to develop these models were located north from Grangeville to Porthill, Idaho and east to Libby, Montana. Most private and state forest management entities of north Idaho utilize the Stage and Monserud models for reporting yield and site index. This creates a communication breakdown between the NRCS and other forest management entities. Standardization of yield and site index reports by the NRCS is needed not only to prevent this from occurring, but also to improve rotation estimates, carbon sequestration estimates, and other naturals resource interpretations. Bringing the data up to consistent and accurate standards would improve the usability and acceptance of the NRCS Idaho soil survey product.

2007
With pressure and vibration on a soil, air spaces between soil particles can be reduced by displaced soil particles. Activity associated with heavy machine traffic increases the density of the soil and can also increase the resistance of the soil to penetration. This paper reviews research related to disturbance of forest soils with a primary focus on compaction in ash-cap soils. The general process of compaction is described along with physical properties of ash-cap soils that relate to compaction. Ash-cap soils have physical soil properties most closely aligned to silt-loam soils. Undisturbed ash-cap soils often have low bulk densities to variable depths. Under moisture conditions near field capacity, these soils are susceptible to significant disturbance from machine traffic, and when the disturbance causes increases in bulk density, the soils are not likely to recover from this disturbed condition for many years. Machine traffic on forest soils generally occurs as a result of some form of active stand management including precommercial thinning, intermediate and final timber harvest, and site preparation activities involving slash disposal and treatment. The direct contact between equipment and the forest soil will result in some type of soil disturbance. The degree and extent of the soil disturbance is most often controlled through guidelines on the selection and operation of equipment and by restricting the location and operating season for equipment.
Nuclear ribosomal DNA regions (i.e. large subunit, internal transcribed spacer, 5.8S and intergenic spacer) were sequenced using a direct-polymerase chain reaction method from Armillaria ostoyae genets collected from the western USA. Many of the A. ostoyae genets contained heterogeneity among rDNA repeats, indicating intragenomic variation and likely intraspecific hybridization. Intragenomic variation was verified by visually editing base-sequence offsets in regions with insertions/deletions, and using sequence-specific internal primers to resequence heterogeneous regions. Phylogenetic analyses with Bayesian Inference methods were used to define groups within A. ostoyae. Analysis of A. ostoyae from outside the western USA indicated the presence of a Circumboreal group of A. ostoyae that also occurs in Utah; two other phylogeographic groups were associated with the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Northwest regions of the USA. Mixed sequence types, an indication of intraspecific hybrids, were common in some geographic regions. Hybridization events may have influenced species evolution, contributing to variation in pathogenicity and virulence. The occurrence of these groups and intraspecific hybrids also indicates that paleogeography and paleoclimate may have influenced the phylogeography of A. ostoyae. In addition, other Armillaria species were examined for evolutionary relationships with the groups of A. ostoyae. These findings will provide a basis for future research relating ecological function to genetic diversity within A. ostoyae.
Volcanic ash distribution and thickness were determined for a forested region of north-central Idaho. Mean ash thickness and multiple linear regression analyses were used to model the effect of environmental variables on ash thickness. Slope and slope curvature relationships with volcanic ash thickness varied on a local spatial scale across the study area. Ash distribution and aspect showed weak correlation. Elevation and ecologically based plant associations accounted for about 54 percent of the observed variation in volcanic ash thickness. Climax plant associations moister than grand fir/queen cup beadlily (Abies grandis/Clintonia uniflora) had consistently thick ash mantles and soils that would be classified as either Andisols or andic subgroups using Soil Taxonomy. The statistical model error of 10.7 cm was significantly lower than the >20 cm variation often found in local soil series. This model quantitatively assesses ash distribution and can be integrated into other local ecological models.
Data from 139 research sites throughout the Inland Northwest were analyzed for effects of ash cap on site productivity, nutrient availability and fertilization response. Stand productivity and nitrogen (N) fertilizer response were greater on sites with ash cap than on sites without. Where ash was present, depth of ash had no effect on site productivity or N fertilizer response. Site productivity increased with increasing potentially available soil water. Potentially available soil water, in turn, increased with increasing ash depth. Decreasing availability of magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) in the upper 12 inches of soil may have constrained site productivity with increasing ash depth. Soil mineralizable N and ammonium N were unaffected by ash presence or depth but did vary by underlying parent material. Site productivity and N fertilizer response varied by underlying parent material even after accounting for ash presence. Stand volume response to sulfur (S) fertilization decreased with increasing ash depth, suggesting possible S adsorption by ash cap. No growth response or change in foliar K status was discerned following K fertilization. Management recommendations by parent material are provided.

2010
We describe a portable pyrolysis system for bioenergy production from forest biomass that minimizes long-distance transport costs and provides for nutrient return and long-term soil carbon storage. The cost for transporting biomass to conversion facilities is a major impediment to utilizing forest biomass. If forest biomass could be converted into bio-oil in the field, it may be more profitable to utilize forest biomass for bioenergy. Bio-oil can substitute for fuel oil, or be used as a crude oil and further refined into additional products. Transporting energy-dense bio-oil is more cost effective than transporting bulky, low-value biomass. In-woods pyrolysis can also address concerns over removing nutrients and carbon from forest sites through reapplication of bio-char, a pyrolysis byproduct, which is equivalent to the charcoal found in all fire ecosystems. Bio-char is 70-80 percent carbon and retains most nutrients contained in biomass. It can be used as a soil amendment to enhance soil productivity through a liming effect, which improves cation exchange capacity and base saturation, increasing anion availability, improving water holding capacity and decreasing bulk density. Charcoal is known to remain stable in soils for hundreds to thousands of years. Long charcoal residence times provide a way to quickly sequester atmospheric carbon by assimilating it into a recalcitrant form that can be applied to soils. In total the portable pyrolysis approach has the potential to improve the economic efficiency of biomass removal from overstocked forests through the in-woods conversion of biomass to bio-oil that avoids the costs and emissions of transportation to central facilities. Biochar can be returned to the forest economically if pyrolysis occurs at or near the site of biomass removal. Reapplication of bio-char will sequester carbon in soil and may enhance site productivity.

2011
Bioenergy production from forest biomass offers a unique solution to reduce wildfire hazard fuel while producing a useful source of renewable energy. However, biomass removals raise concerns about reducing soil carbon and altering forest site productivity. Biochar additions have been suggested as a way to mitigate soil carbon loss and cycle nutrients back into forestry sites; yet, little is known about the effects of intentional biochar amendments to temperate forest soil in conjunction with biomass removals for bioenergy production. In this review, we evaluate the potential for mobile bioenergy systems and the environmental implications of biochar application in forests. Using forest biomass that accumulates annually during forest harvest operations, bioenergy can be produced on-site and the biochar that is generated can be redistributed to return nutrients and help improve water holding capacity of the site. Little is known about the short- and long-term impacts of biochar application in forest ecosystems. Some sites may benefit from biochar application, while others show no or negative responses. Field studies on soil and vegetation responses combined with laboratory studies will elucidate the best sites for biochar application and sustainable bioenergy production.
Biomass estimation models are often used to aid in developing site nutrient budgets. However, readily available biomass models are regional and thus potentially mask nutritional affects of site-type. Site nutrient richness may influence Douglas-fir allometric relationships and could affect the nutrient content of tree components. To test this, we selected mature stands of consistent climate regime that were deemed either poor site nutrition (quartzite parent material, 3 sites) or good site nutrition (basalt parent material, 3 sites). This comparison will help define when and where generalized or site-specific biomass models.

2012
Physical and chemical soil characteristics along with Douglas-fir (Psuedotsuga menziesii var. glauca) growth and foliar nutrition were tracked over a 24 yr period following a ground based regeneration harvest and site preparation in northern Idaho, USA. Harvest unit soils were classified as Andisols overlaying metasedimentary parent material within an udic-frigid moisture and temperature regime. Douglas-fir site index at base age 50 was 29 m. Four site preparation conditions were monitored: undisturbed control, broadcast burn, pile and burn, and mechanical scarification. Periodic soil-site measurements were collected on each condition at regeneration stand ages 6, 14 and 24 yrs. Six and 14-yr soil bulk density on scarified conditions were significantly higher at 0-15 and 15-30 cm than all other conditions. Scarified soil bulk density showed recovery to non-scarify condition levels at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm after 24 yrs. Scarified soil organic matter (SOM) and N were significantly reduced by 32 and 42% over control levels 6 yrs post-harvest. After 24 yrs, scarified SOM and N were significantly lower than that found in broadcast burn (44 and 54%) and pile and burn (33% and 49%). Douglas-fir needle mass and foliar N and P content on scarified conditions were significantly lower than broadcast burn or pile and burn conditions after 24 yrs (p<0.1). Soil and foliar N content was significantly higher in those conditions receiving a burn application after 24 yrs (p<0.1). Tree growth on either burn condition showed significantly greater diameter (35%), height (14%) and volume (92%) when compared to trees growing on scarified conditions after 24 yrs (p<0.1). These results indicate that tree growth on frigid, ash-mantled forest soils of the Inland Northwest can be significantly reduced following soil compaction and displacement of organic-rich topsoil. Where soil disturbance is minimized and organic matter retention is coupled with a burn treatment, soil and tree productivity will be maintained or enhanced.